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CSS Dixieland
Probing the depths of knowledge
These essays by P. A. Stonemann, CSS Dixieland, cover a wide range of historical, philosophical, scientifical and technical subjects. Each page deals with a particular topic, divided into sections and explained by itself. Every page shows at its top hyper links to every other page. The Start page also has short descriptions of the other pages. CSS Dixieland expresses gratitude to the readers that make this work meaningful.
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Unics Operating Systems page
The most portable and customisable systems ever created
Full of advanced resources for the experienced programmer
Walkyrie who takes our dead heroes to Walhalla in Asgard.
Wagner Frost Illustration
Sections in this page
Introduction to Unics
History and classification of Unics
Classification of the BSD genealogy
Chronology of the BSD genealogy
Characteristics of some Unics systems
Basic commands for most Unics systems
Most of the operational Unics commands
Technical note: In languages other than English or Latin, but which use mainly Latin characters, some characters are taken from other alphabets, or some Latin characters are modified with diacritic marks for representing different phonemic sounds or other orthographic conventions of those languages. Those characters, when used in this document, have been encoded as entities of Hyper Text Mark-up Language or sometimes in Unicode UTF-8. Therefore computers using other character encodings may render some characters inaccurately, but hopefully, it will still be possible to read non-English words without too much difficulty.
'Unics' is the original name of a series of operating systems that became surprisingly successful, developing many variants made by different authors, and the only system that has ports for main frame, mini or micro computers. In 1965 Bell Laboratories helped to implement an operating system called 'Multics'. Bell abandoned the Multics project some years later, but Mister Ken Thompson, at the time an employee of Bell, thought that he could create an operating system inspired on Multics. He presented his system in June 1969 with the name of 'Unics', humorously meaning 'Unified Multics'. It was an interactive time-sharing system written entirely in Assembly, for DEC PDP-7 minicomputer, and initially used mainly to play games.
In 1972 Mister Dennis Ritchie, inventor of C programming language, took an interest on Unics. He rewrote the system almost entirely in C language (some time-critical parts were left in Assembly) between 1972 and 1974, thus making the first source-portable operating system, and in 1974 renaming it as 'UNIX' (all in capital letters, though the form 'Unix' is also common and was later preferred by Mister Ritchie himself). The first official specification was 'The UNIX Time-Sharing System', by Dennis Ritchie et alii, published by CACM in 1974. Unics subsequently underwent mutations and expansions at the hands of many programmers, ranging from individuals to academic or commercial entities, resulting in a uniquely flexible and advanced environment for programming, portable to many platforms, and the war horse of the Open Source Movement, whose goal it is to make software available with source code, for making possible its study and eventual modification by knowledgeable programmers. By the early 1990's Unics, or its most successful variants, had become the most widely used general-purpose operating systems for several concurrent users in the world.
Most of the variants are descended from the original Unics by rather intricate lines of inheritance, being today open source or restricted source (closed, mixed or shared source). A few variants are not descendants of the original Unics, they are independent creations strongly inspired or influenced by later Unics or some of its branches. Some examples of the descendants of Unics are the fissionings of the 386 BSD group into some daughter projects: Net-BSD (and its Open-BSD derivation), Free-BSD (and its Dragonfly-BSD, PC-BSD and Midnight-BSD derivations), plus Macintosh Darwin OS X (not to confuse with the original Apple Macintosh), Open Solaris (and its Open Indiana derivation), and a few others. The only known examples of the independent creations are Minix, Weenix and Linux. Either descended from Unics or independently created, all the systems listed above are open source: the various BSD, Darwin OS X, Open Solaris (and Open Indiana), Minix, Weenix and Linux. The restricted source systems referred above (closed, mixed or shared source) are all descended from Unics, they are not independent creations.
Of all Unics systems, some have evolved greatly when compared to the original Unics, others have remained closer to their model. Some have active thriving communities and huge amounts of software, others are reduced to small groups of enthusiasts. Some have known tremendous success (like Linux), others have not really taken off (like GNU Hurd). Some are relatively simple (like Minix), others astoundingly complex (like BSD). Some are in tiny distributions (like Coyote Linux, for floppy disk), others are commercially supported mastodonts (like Red Hat Linux or Connectiva Linux). Whatever the needs of a programmer, from intermediate to advanced projects, there is one or another variant of Unics catering to the purposes of every serious user. It is important to warn, however, that Unics is intended FOR PROGRAMMERS. Most absolute beginners will probably feel frustrated when confronted with the cryptic commands of Unics. Luckily, there are tutorials of various levels and other helping resources.
The name `UNIX', in capital letters, is a trademark that belonged to Bell Laboratories, passed to Novell in 1990, and as of 2016 legally belongs to The Open Group. It must not be used in reference to products that are not owned or marketed by The Open Group. For such non-Open Group products it is recommendable to write 'Unix' (avoiding all capitals), or better 'Unix-like'. Some authors write 'Un*x' or similar spelling, rather confusing. The name 'Unics' tends to be reserved for the early original model, but it can be used as a generic name for its inherited or inspired derivations. Being 'Unics' the most traditional name, it has been chosen for this page of CSS Dixieland.
Standard Unics Books
The most important standards of the Unics genealogy are contained in two 'Green Books', two 'Purple Books', and two 'Daemon Books' (or 'Devil Books').
The Green Books are:
The Official Standard 'Portable Operating Systems Interface for Computer Environments' of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE POSIX 1003.1), today followed by most Unics variations.
'X/Open Compatibility Guide', defining an international standard Unics environment that is a proper superset of the Official Standard IEEE POSIX/SVID, including descriptions of a standard utility toolkit, system administration features, and the like.
The Purple Books are:
'POSIX Programmer's Guide' by Donald Lewine, published by O'Reilly in 1991 ISBN 0-937175-73-0). It is also known as the 'Unix Wizard Book'.
'System V Interface Definition', describing one of the most well known commercial variations of Unics.
The 'Daemon Books' (or 'Devil Books') are:
'The Design and Implementation of the 4.3 BSD UNIX Operating System' by Samuel J. Leffler, Marshall Kirk McKusick, Michael J. Karels, John S. Quarterman, published by Addison-Wesley in Reading, Massachussetts, in 1989. ISBN 0-201-06196-1
'The Design and Implementation of the 4.4 BSD Operating System' by Keith Bostic, Marshall Kirk McKusick, Michael J. Karels, John S. Quarterman, published by Addison-Wesley Longman in Reading, Massachussetts, in 1996. ISBN 0-201-54979-4
Any of the two Daemon Books is the standard reference on the internals of BSD Unics. They are called 'Daemon' or 'Devil' because the cover has the image of a little devil (a play on the daemon feature of Unics), holding a pitchfork (a play on the fork(2) system call of Unics). A Unics enthusiast once related that she was in a North American road restaurant wearing a shirt decorated with the little Unics devil, and she was told by angry customers to take some portable food and abandon the premises as soon as possible, because people in that town were very Christian and could not tolerate Satanic manifestations.
There are also some books for the uninitiated in the Unics arcana:
'Unix for beginners' published in 1978.
'Life with UNIX' by Don Libes.
History and classification of Unics
By the mid-1980s most of the interesting software work was being done using microcomputers and the emerging BSD Unics standard, rather than using main frame, mini, or super computers. An outstanding event was the BSD Conference of 1999, with Mister Marshall Kirk McKusick and other important names. Part of the information in this page is based on 'The BSD Family Tree', published in 2012 by Herr Wolfram Schneider of Free-BSD. His highly valuable research is based on Mister Josh Gilliam, Mister Steven M. Schultz, manual pages of various BSD variants, NNCP Usenet, and many other sources. It is a necessary reading for the enthusiast of Unics History. Herr Schneider can be contacted by electronic post at the address:
wosch AT freebsd DOT org
The string "AT" must be substituted by the character "@" and the string "DOT" by the character "." without surrounding spaces and in single horizontal line.
Sorry for the inconvenience, but there is a bunch of niggers from Niggeria whose favourite sport is sending lots of spam. They use computer programmes for automatic harvesting of addresses, and the above substitution is one of the methods for thwarting such programmes and their nasty monkey users.
Books and hyper links
The selection offered here is by no means complete, there are many other books or documents with valuable content on Unics, in electronic form or printed on paper. The list below serves as an introduction to the subject.
'A quarter century of UNIX' by Peter H. Salus, published by Addison-Wesley in 1994. ISBN 0-201-54777-5
'Research Unix Reader' by Doug McIlroy.
'The Role of BSD in the Development of Unix' by Michael G. Brown, presented to the Tasmanian Unix Special Interest Group of the Australian Computer Society, Hobart, August 1993.
'Die freien BSD-Varianten von Unix' by Andreas Klemm, Lars Keller, published in April 1997.
'The Design and Implementation of the FreeBSD Operating System' by Marshall Kirk McKusick, George Neville-Neil, published by Addison-Wesley Professional on 2nd August 2004. ISBN 0-201-70245-2
Levenez
UNIX history
http://www.levenez.com/unix/
Minnie
UNIX history graphing project
http://minnie.tuhs.org/Unix_History/index.html
Command interpreters
A presentation of Unics would not be complete without mentioning the various command interpreters (shells) typically used in systems of the Unics genealogy. The shell is a command programming language that provides an interface to the operating system. Its features include control-flow primitives, parameter passing, variables and string substitution. Constructs such as 'while, if then else, case, for' are available. Two-way communication is possible between the shell and commands. String-valued parameters, typically data set names or flags, may be passed to a command. A return code is set by commands that may be used to determine control-flow, and the standard output from a command may be used as shell input. The shell can modify the environment in which commands run. Input and output can be redirected to data sets, and processes that communicate through `pipes' can be invoked. Commands are found by searching directories in the data set system in a sequence that can be defined by the user. Commands can be read either from the terminal or from a data set, which allows command procedures to be stored for later use. Most executables can optionally be run in the foreground or in the background.
'An Introduction to the Unix Shell' by S. R. Bourne of Murray Hill, published in New Jersey 1979 for Unix Research Seventh Edition. Except for some changes by the Official Standard IEEE POSIX, this document is valid for the command interpreters sh, ash, bash, ksh and some others. Typically one of them is installed as /bin/sh in a Unics system following the Official Standard IEEE POSIX. The document is NOT valid for the command interpreter csh.
'An Introduction to the C shell' by William Joy. This is the document for csh.
Unics commands
Some commands or characteristics of the Unics genealogy or of some of its systems:
Unics dd(1) (from IBM JCL, equivalent to cat or to BLT. Originally the name of a Unics copy command with special options suitable for block-oriented devices. It was often used in heavy-handed system maintenance. The Unics dd(1) was designed with a weird, distinctly non-Unics keyword option syntax reminiscent of the JCL of IBM System/360 (which had an elaborate DD `Dataset Definition' specification for Input/Output devices). Though the command filled a need, the interface design was clearly a prank. dd(1) has been little used for a long time (though it has no exact replacement). The term has been displaced by BLT or simple English `copy'.
The force-all-caps (LCASE) bits in the tty driver of Version 7 and of BSD, designed for use with monocase terminals. In a curious far-fetching of the usual goal of backward-compatibility, this functionality has been expanded and renamed in some later USG Unix releases as the IUCLC and OLCUC bits.
UUCPNET. The store-and-forward network consisting of all the connected Unics computers in the World, or other computers running some clone of UUCP (Unics to Unics CoPy). Any computer reachable only via a path of exclamation marks (or also optional curly brackets) is on UUCPNET. After the spread of cheap Internet connections in the 1990s, the few remaining UUCP links are mostly slow channels to the Internet, rather than an autonomous network, but UUCP is still used as of 2016 and most Unics systems still have support for it.
Vi `Visual Interface', a screen text editor created by Mister William Joy for an early BSD release. It became the most common Unics editor and a nearly undisputed favourite outside of the Massachussetts Institute of Technology, until the rise of Emacs after 1984. Vi is cryptic and tends to frustrate new users, as it will neither take commands while expecting input text nor vice versa, and the default set-up of older versions provides no indication of in which mode the editor is (although it can be commanded to show that status at the bottom line). There are several clones of Vi, such as Nvi of Mister Keith Bostic (which is today the standard in most BSD systems and in Minix), Vim of Mister Bram Moolenaar, Elvis of Mister Steve Kirkendall, plus X Vi, Calvin, Vile, and some other text editors more or less similar to Vi.
About half of the respondents in a Usenet poll conducted in 1991 declared a preference for Vi (or some of its variants) over Emacs or its variants, and over Ed, Ee, or other editors commonly used in Unics. Even those who prefer Emacs often resort to Vi as an editor for short texts, mainly because Vi starts much faster than the bigger versions of Emacs (which often include a full featured LISP interpreter). The endless debate between the acolytes of Vi and those of Emacs is a perennial 'holy war', as it is the debate between BSD and Linux, or the debate of Pascal or Ada versus C, C++ or Java languages, or some other debates that are a permanent source of amusement for those that have nothing better to do than find faults in others and never in themselves.
Wheel (from slang `big wheel' for a powerful person) is a person who has an active wheel bit. 'Wheel' is the traditional name of security group zero in BSD, to which the major system-internal users like the 'root' super user belong. Some systems have expanded on this usage, modifying Unics so that only members of group `wheel' can be super users and command awesome power.
Ping (from the submariner term for a sonar pulse) is a slang term for a small network message (ICMP ECHO) sent by a computer to check for the presence and alertness of another computer. The Unics command ping(8) can be used to do this manually. The 'Ping of Death' was a famous case, which when discovered could have been easily used to crash a wide variety of computers by overunning size limits in their TCP/IP stacks. It was first revealed in late 1996. The open-source Unics community patched its systems to remove the vulnerability within days or weeks, but the closed-source vendors generally took months for doing it. The difference in response times between the open and closed source systems repeated a pattern that is common from other security incidents, and the accompanying glare of bad publicity for the vendors proved to be unusually embarrassing to them, and so passed into history and myth. The term 'ping' is now used to refer to any nudge delivered by network wizards over the network that causes bad things to happen on the system being nudged.
There have been some security incidents, more or less serious. One affected the BSD Sendmail feature. A dangerous executable, as it was later discovered, moved from computer to computer by exploiting flaws in BSD. The main flaw was in Sendmail, another executable often used for sending electronic mail among computers in the interlinked networks. A trapdoor in Sendmail allowed commands to be sent from computer to computer (normally, only real electronic mail is supposed to be sent). Those commands were the dangerous executable. Once that it had entered a computer through Sendmail, it collected information on other computers in the network, it tried to jump to them, and it happily proceeded to infect those computers as well. Fortunately, the reaction of the BSD community is always faster than the reaction of most commercial vendors, and the danger was eliminated before reaching apocalyptic proportions.
Unics genealogy
The following is a brief History of the Unics genealogy. More details afterwards.
There are two primary branches:
-Inspired or influenced by Unics
-Descended from Unics
Inspired or influenced by Unics (but not descended from it) are only three main operating systems, each with different versions:
-Minix (1987) has always been free and open source. Version 3.3 is presented as a 'live' compact disk, boot-strappable and usable without a hard disk, though a hard disk is recommended for making full use of Minix resources.
-Weenix is a system developed at Brown University for tutorial purposes (as it was initially the case also with Minix), but Weenix does not include the usual libraries in C language that are common in most other Unics systems, therefore a sizeable number of executables for Unics cannot be used in Weenix, because such executables depend on the availability of those C libraries. Except for that important limitation, Weenix offers full capabilities and is an excellent tool for learning how an operating system works, which was the original purpose of Minix (versions 1 and 2).
-Linux (1991, inspired on Minix), also mostly free and open source. Linux is presented as a kernel, with a lesser or greater number of executables in different distributions, most of which are free but a few are commercial.
Descended from Unics are the other systems to which this page is devoted. Some are open source, others restricted (closed, mixed or shared source). Some are free, others commercial. They can be divided in two secondary branches, not only from the legal point of view but also from the technical point of view: one free and open, the other commercial and restricted (closed, shared or mixed), with an intermediate branch represented by those systems that at some point changed from commercial to free, and more or less simultaneously they also changed from restricted to open source. It has never happened in the opposite way, a free and open system has never become commercial and closed.
In those systems that began as commercial and later became free, a similar pattern of evolution is repeated ad nauseam: the legal owner decides for various reasons, or he is compelled by different causes, to diminish the support given to his customers. The system is then permitted to be used more or less 'for free' by individuals, or also by non-profit or by non-official organisations, but still keeping the legal rights in all the other aspects.
The legal owner gradually releases his control. He may completely abandon the system, and may even release the source. He may still keep some theoretical legal rights, but in practice he is not interested in his own system anymore. Sooner or later, some enthusiasts may feel attracted to that 'free' system and may begin modifying it, or cloning it, and distribute such new versions under a name that may be identical, or similar, or even completely different. The original may become open source, the derivations are open source almost in every case. Thus comes another victory for the 'Open Source Movement'.
Those that have always been free and open source may be classified like this:
-BSD Net/2 (1991) and 386 BSD (1992) were the origin of Net-BSD (1993) and of Free-BSD (also 1993, some months later). From Net-BSD derived Open-BSD (1994). From Free-BSD derived Dragonfly-BSD, later PC-BSD and Midnight-BSD.
Expanding the above, some non-commercial systems of the Unics genealogy are:
Minix
Minix (meaning 'Minimal Unix'), created in 1987 by Mister Andrew Tanenbaum of Vrije Universiteit at Amsterdam, began as a minimal Unics operating system of open source for IBM Personal Computer or compatibles. Minix is THE OLDEST Unics open source system in common use today, older than any current BSD, Linux, Solaris-Indiana, or than any other currently active open source Unics system. As another distinction, Minix has a microkernel, not a monolithic kernel as it is the case in most other Unics systems. Minix versions 1.x of 1987 and 2.x of 1997 were partly intended as teaching tools, for showing how an operating system could be built. Minix version 3.x of 2006, however, is a fully functional system, with important enhancements made in 2009. Minix 1.x and 2.x can be used with Intel 80386 or compatible processor, but an Intel Pentium or compatible is recommended for Minix 3.x, and at least 16 Megabytes of Random Access Memory. If using a hard disk (not absolutely needed, see below), then a minimum of 200 Megabytes of storage space. Ideally about 700 Megabytes: 667 for the full distribution and a few more for a personal 'home' directory. The 'home' directory is kept intact when updating the Minix system. It is recommended a compact disk drive for installing Minix to a hard disk, or for boot-strapping Minix from the live compact disk (without need of hard disk), if using the compact disk distribution, though other methods exist for installing Minix to a hard disk, if available.
Current in 2016 is Minix version 3.3 of 2014, which is distributed as a 'live' (a boot-strappable) compact disk, one of the very few members of the Unics genealogy so distributed, and in fact one of the few currently active systems that can be used with no more than a compact disk in the computer. The compact disk, and the optional hard disk, must be of the Integrated Device Electronics IDE type. Some Serial ATA disks may work, but SCSI or USB disks do not work. Even without a hard disk, a Universal Serial Bus storage device, or another boot-strappable volume, a fully functional command line is available directly from the compact disk. The distribution image is in ISO 9660 format, and must be expanded by Bzip or similar algorithm before burning the compact disk. Minix 3.3 lacks support for the X-11 Window graphic interface that is often available in other Unics systems, but the lack is not missing much, because computer enthusiasts invariably prefer the command line. Every operation can be done by command line, without a mouse, track ball, touch pad, light pen, or any other pointing device. This is a strong point of Minix and most BSDs.
Minix includes software made by BSD, by the Free Software Foundation, and by other third parties, with the corresponding licences. Minix is not part of BSD, but many executables made for various BSD systems work well in Minix and vice-versa. Minix encourages free volunteers for testing, programming, promoting, or other activities. Most important help is documenting (be it an original writing or a translation). For this purpose, a wiki is available in the Web document of Minix. It is mainly in English, with a few introductory lines in Spanish written by P. A. Stonemann, CSS Dixieland. Other languages are also welcome. Potential collaborators are invited to write to the Minix electronic address and propose their ideas. Minix is distributed under the terms of the BSD licence. The most important book in reference to Minix is 'Operating Systems Design and Implementation', written by Mister Tanenbaum, book first available in paper and now in electronic form.
WARNING: it is highly recommended to back up all important data sets before installing Minix 3 to a hard disk. Being an operating system, it will always overwrite all data present in the partition in which it have been installed. If possible, it is also recommendable to read the installation instructions before attempting to install Minix 3 to hard disk, especially if needing to make partitions (slices) in the hard disk and to keep data already in it. It is not absolutely necessary to read the instructions if dedicating the whole hard disk to Minix 3, or if accepting the risk of losing data in the disk, or if not using a hard disk at all. Oddly enough, detailed instructions are not included with the distribution, they must be read or copied from the Minix Web document, which includes a wiki editable by volunteers. The Uniform Resource Locator is given below. Inside the Minix distribution the main documentation is available by the Unics Manual (the 'man' executable) and by the information software of the Free Software Foundation (the 'info' executable), as it is in most BSD systems. A few documents exist in some other formats. There is a short introduction to the use of Minix below in this page.
Minix
The oldest open source Unics operating system, distributed as a 'live' compact disk
http://www.minix3.org/
Minix Wiki
Information on Minix, from simple to complex, where volunteers can be authors or translators
http://wiki.minix3.org/
Linux
Linux (meaning 'Linus Unix'), created by Mister Linus Torvalds in 1991 and developed by him and many collaborators, is a fully fledged system very used at present. Mister Torvalds is part of the 6% ethnic minority of Swedes in Finland, and fluent in Finnish as well as in Swedish and in English. He had worked with Minix, and saw that with the help of others he could push the Minix concept farther than Tanenbaum probably had thought that it could go. Thus, Mister Torvalds did not attempt to write Linux from scratch. Instead, he started by reusing code and ideas from Minix. Eventually all the Minix code in Linux went away or was completely rewritten, but while it was there, it provided scaffolding for the infant that would eventually become Linux. Therefore Minix was the inspiration for Linux, but Linux is not a plagiarism of Minix, they are fully separate creations. This is recognised by Mister Tanenbaum himself, against allegations of 'plagiarism' claimed by critics who seem to be at the service of certain, rather dishonest, software giants.
Linux is a clone of Unics for Intel 80386, 80486 and Pentium processors or compatibles. Ports to Alpha, Sparc and many other computers are also in use. The Linux kernel and most executables are distributed for free and with sources. Some executables are not accompanied by source, and a few are commercial and require payment. Linux is what GNU aimed to be, and it relies on the GNU tool set. However, the Free Software Foundation did not produce the GNU kernel to go with that set until 1999, which was too late. Likewise, the term `GNU Linux' wants the Free Software Foundation to get most of the credit for Linux, because Mister Richard Stallman et alii wrote many of the user-level tools for the system, and also because many executables and other resources made for Linux are distributed under the terms of one or another version of the General Public Licence, published by the Free Software Foundation. Linux became about 1996 the cutting edge of the Open Source Movement, having now considerable use.
Other efforts such as Minix or various BSD systems have been technically successful, but have never caught fire in the way that Linux has. In the early XXI century Linux is seriously challenging the dominance of Microsoft Windows operating systems for servers. Linux has already captured 31% of the Internet-server market and 25% of general business servers, but as yet only a small part of the market for desk-tops. This is because Linux, as other Unics systems, is inclined towards efficiency much more than towards friendliness. Unics systems are not 'intuitive', as for instance Microsoft Windows purports to be. This is the main reason why Unics has not captured the general public. If not so much by the general public, Linux is very often used by programmers. The success of Linux seems to have been that Linux worked hard from the start to keep the development process open, and to recruit volunteer programmers, creating a growing effect. Some people use the name `Linux' only in reference to the kernel, not to the entire operating system. The reason is that Linux, strictly speaking, is only the kernel. The rest is composed of distributions, which may be smaller or bigger, with executables that may be open source or closed source, free or commercial (such as Red Hat Linux or Connectiva Linux).
BSD
BSD (meaning `Berkeley Software Distribution'), is a system initially made for VAX and PDP-11 minicomputers built by DEC, and later ported to many other computers. BSD was developed by Mister William Joy and others at the University of California at Berkeley, starting about 1977. It incorporates paged virtual memory, TCP/IP networking enhancements, and many other features. The BSD Unics Releases 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 (it is incorrect to call them 'versions'), and the commercial systems derived from them: Sun OS, Ultrix and Mt. Xinu, held the technical lead in the Unics world until the successful standardisation efforts made by AT & T after about 1986. BSD has branched considerably, descendants include Net-BSD, Open-BSD, Free-BSD, Dragonfly-BSD, PC-BSD, Midnight-BSD, BSD/OS and Macintosh Darwin OS X, all in use as of 2016.
Net-BSD and Open-BSD
Net-BSD is the most portable system that has ever existed. It can be executed in almost any computer. That fact means that Net-BSD is extremely reliable and robust, or it could not have been ported to so many different computers.
From Net-BSD derived Open-BSD. The strong point of Open-BSD is security. Its development team is based in Canada, thus it is not subjected to the export restrictions on cryptographic software that seriously limit projects based in the United States. Open-BSD is exportable to many architectures and processors, though not so many as it is the case with Net-BSD. Open-BSD is undoubtedly the system of choice when security, in all its varied aspects, be the most important concern, and when portability be a close second concern.
Free-BSD, Dragonfly-BSD, PC-BSD and Midnight-BSD
Free-BSD is the most general-purpose of all BSD systems. Its distribution includes more software and documentation (even full books) than in any other BSD. From Free-BSD derived Dragonfly BSD, PC-BSD and Midnight-BSD.
Not so general as its immediate ancestor, Dragonfly-BSD also has enthusiasts. This system had a port for Intel x86 processors or compatibles, but since version 4.0, Dragonfly now exists only for 86-64 processors.
Targeted to the beginner, PC-BSD and Midnight-BSD aim to be more 'friendly' and 'intuitive' than most other Unics systems. Their default is the graphic interface, instead of the command line that is the strong point of many of the others. A rather unfortunate choice, because the command line gives a flexibility and efficiency that cannot be matched by ANY graphic interface, but sadly most people are ignorant donkeys, and donkeys seem to prefer the easy game of the desk-top icons, the pull-down menu, and the ubiquitous mouse. Microsoft Windows is already the system of choice for the mentally retarded, while BSD is an advanced system for the experienced lover of Computing, and ought to avoid that simplistic trend of the 'graphic interfaces'.
There are various graphic interfaces for beginners who prefer 'eye candy', but the COMMAND LINE of Unics is much more efficient than any funny icons
Unics systems of restricted source
Those that are, or at some point were, commercial or restricted are these:
-USG Unix (1980), origin of System III, System V and Unixware.
-Xenix (1980), origin of SCO Xenix, SCO Unix and Open Server.
-Sun OS (1981). Not really an ancestor of Solaris, in spite of Sun OS having been retroactively named 'Solaris 1' when Solaris was released in 1991 as 'Solaris 2' (not to confuse with Open Solaris, see below).
-Ultrix (1982)
-AIX (1985)
-HP/UX (1985)
-Mt. Xinu
Expanding the above, some commercial systems of the Unics genealogy are:
USG Unix. Refers to AT & T Unix commercial versions after Version 7, especially System III and System V releases 1, 2 and 3. So called because during most of the life span of those versions AT & T's support crew was called the `Unix Support Group', it is applied to versions that pre- or post-dated USG but were of the same lineage. Once upon a time in elder days, everyone running Unics had source. After 1978, AT & T's policy tightened up, so this objurgation was in theory appropriately directed only at associates of some outfit with a Unics source license. In practice, bootlegs of Unics source code (made precisely for reference purposes) were so ubiquitous that one could utter it at almost anyone on the network without concern. Nowadays, free Unics clones have become widely enough distributed that anyone can read source legally. The most widely distributed is certainly Linux, with variants of the NET/2 and 4.4 BSD distributions running second. Cheap commercial Unics with source such as BSD/OS are accelerating this trend.
Xenix and its derivations (SCO Xenix, SCO Unix and Open Server) are among the many commercial variants of the Unics genealogy. Like other such variants, they still have corporative users and some amount of development.
Sun OS, the BSD Unics variant supported on Sun Microsystems's Unix work stations. Sun Microsystems: the name was originally an acronym, Stanford University Network. Sun started about 1980 with some hardware experts, mainly from Stanford, talking to some software experts, mainly from Berkeley. Sun's original technology concept married a clever board design based on Motorola 68000 to BSD Unics. Sun went on to lead the worstation industry in the 1980s, and for years afterwards remained an engineering-driven company. Though Sun drifted away from its origins after 1990 and made some strategic moves that disappointed and annoyed many (especially by maintaining proprietary control of Java and by rejecting Linux), Sun is still considered within the family in much the same way that DEC was in the 1970s and early 1980s.
Ultrix was the variant developed by DEC for its VAX minicomputers released in 1978 (based on PDP-11 minicomputers). VAXen were common in the 1980's. Ultrix was based on 4.2 BSD and remained compatible, in spite of modifications made by DEC. Ultrix was also one of the best documented members of the Unics genealogy. In spite of some initial reserve felt by Mister Kenneth Olsen, President of DEC (the famous brand of minicomputers and small main frames), DEC finally chose to begin its own family of Unix work stations, thus giving strong impetus to Unics systems.
AIX, a version of Unics produced by IBM. The name AIX is used especially in reference to AIX 3.x, incorporated into IBM RS/6000 series of computers. AIX was a victim of the dreaded 'hybridism' disease, an attempt to combine the two main currents of the Unics stream: BSD Unics and USG Unix, but AIX became a monstrosity to haunt system administrators. For example, if new accounts were created while many users were logged, then the load average jumped quickly over 20 due to silly implementation of the user data bases. For a quite similar disease, compare HP-UX.
HP-UX, a version of Unics produced by Hewlett-Packard, which features some truly unique bogosities in the data set system internals and elsewhere (these occasionally create portability problems). The former Apollo Computers Company was swallowed by Hewlett-Packard in 1989, forming HP/Apollo.
Mt. Xinu was another system based on 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 BSD, used in the 1980's.
Unics systems that were restricted and became open
Those in the middle land, from commercial to free or from restricted to open, are so far these ones:
-Macintosh Darwin OS X (1998). Not very related to original Apple Macintosh.
-Open Solaris (2008). Typical example of the evolution outlined above, see below.
Macintosh Darwin OS X is the result of an effort made by Apple to take a part in the development of Unics systems (the original Apple Macintosh is not part of the Unics genealogy). Darwin OS X is based on BSD, however (following the philosophy of the Macintosh series started in 1984), Darwin OS X tries to be an intuitive variant 'for the rest of them' (for those users who do not know much about computers). This is quite contrary to the declared purpose of the vast majority of systems in the Unics genealogy, which are invariably intended for the experienced user. Only Darwin OS X, some Linux distributions, PC-BSD and Midnight-BSD (the latter two derived from Free-BSD), try to make easy the life of the computer illiterate. Consequently, in the aim for being 'friendly' to neophytes, such systems are relatively inefficient for complex work, and with good reason avoided by the expert, who always prefers a command line.
Solaris. The VR4 variant of Unics made by Sun's Systems. Solaris came out of the standardization wars of the early 1990s. Especially on old hardware, the responsiveness of Solaris is much less crisp than under the preceding Sun OS. Sun retroactively renamed Sun OS as 'Solaris 1', and the early releases of Solaris as 'Solaris 2'. Initial releases of Solaris 2 were quite buggy, and Sun was forced by customer demand to support Sun OS (Solaris 1) for quite some time. Newer versions of Solaris were acknowledged to be among the best commercial Unics variants in the late 1990's, but losing single-processor benchmarks to Sparc Linux. From Solaris 2 developed Open Solaris in 2008, but it lasted only two years, being discontinued in 2010. A group of enthusiasts of Open Solaris then developed Open Indiana, which is available as of 2016, although it does not seem to be very active.
Classification of the BSD genealogy
The text below offers in detail the classification of a part of the Unics genealogy, the part that refers to BSD, the Berkeley Software Distribution operating systems or derived from it. Descended from Unics, BSD systems have always been free and open source.
BSD History: Research (First to Tenth), and BSD (most branches)
Research First Edition (V1)
|
Research Second Edition (V2)
|
Research Third Edition (V3)
|
Research Fourth Edition (V4)
|
Research Fifth Edition (V5)
|
Research Sixth Edition (V6) -------*
| |
Research Seventh Edition (V7) 1BSD
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /
32V 2BSD-------------*
\ / |
\ / |
3BSD |
| |
| |
4.0BSD 2.79BSD
| |
4.1BSD --------------> 2.8BSD
| |
4.1aBSD -----------\ |
| \ |
4.1bBSD \ |
| \ |
*------ 4.1cBSD --------------> 2.9BSD
/ | |
Research Eighth Ed| 2.9BSD-Seismo
| | |
+----<--- 4.2BSD 2.9.1BSD
| | |
+----<--- 4.3BSD -------------> 2.10BSD
| | / |
Research Ninth Ed | / 2.10.1BSD
| 4.3BSD Tahoe-----+ |
| | \ |
| | \ |
v | 2.11BSD
Research Tenth Ed | |
| 2.11BSD rev #430
4.3BSD NET/1 |
| v
4.3BSD Reno
|
*---------- 4.3BSD NET/2 -------------------+-------------*
| | | |
386BSD 0.0 | | BSD/386 ALPHA
| | | |
386BSD 0.1 ------------>+ | BSD/386 0.313] | \ | 4.4BSD Alpha | | 386BSD 1.0 | | BSD/386 0.934] | | 4.4BSD | | | / | | | | 4.4BSD-Encumbered | | | -NetBSD 0.8 | BSD/386 1.0 | / | | | FreeBSD 1.0 <-----' NetBSD 0.9 | BSD/386 1.1 | | .----- 4.4BSD Lite | FreeBSD 1.1 | / / | \ | | | / / | \ | FreeBSD 1.1.5 .---|--------' / | \ | | / | / | \ | FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 / | / | \ | | / NetBSD 1.0 <-' | \ | | / | | \ | FreeBSD 2.0 <--' | | BSD/OS 2.0 | \ | | FreeBSD 2.0.5 \ | BSD/OS 2.0.1 | .-----\------------- 4.4BSD Lite2 | | | \ | | | | | | | .-----|------Rhapsody | | | | | | | | NetBSD 1.3 | | | | | | | OpenBSD 2.3 | | | | | | BSD/OS 3.0 | FreeBSD 2.1 | | | | | | | | NetBSD 1.1 ------. BSD/OS 2.1 | FreeBSD 2.1.5 | | | \ | | | | | NetBSD 1.2 \ BSD/OS 3.0 | FreeBSD 2.1.6 | | | \ OpenBSD 2.0 | | | | | | \ | | | FreeBSD 2.1.6.1 | | | \ | | | | | | | \ | | | FreeBSD 2.1.7 | | | | | | | | | | | NetBSD 1.2.1 | | | FreeBSD 2.1.7.1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | *-FreeBSD 2.2 | | | | | | \ | | | | | | FreeBSD 2.2.1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | FreeBSD 2.2.2 | | | OpenBSD 2.1 | | | | | | | | | FreeBSD 2.2.5 | | | | | | | | | | OpenBSD 2.2 | | | | | NetBSD 1.3 | | | FreeBSD 2.2.6 | | | | | | | | | | | NetBSD 1.3.1 | BSD/OS 3.1 | | | | | | OpenBSD 2.3 | | | | | | NetBSD 1.3.2 | | | FreeBSD 2.2.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | BSD/OS 4.0
| v | | | | | | | FreeBSD 2.2.8 | | | | | | | | | | | OpenBSD 2.4 | FreeBSD 3.0 <--------* | | v | | | | | NetBSD 1.3.3 | | *---FreeBSD 3.1 | | | | | | | | | BSD/OS 4.0.1 | FreeBSD 3.2----* | NetBSD 1.4 OpenBSD 2.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | FreeBSD 3.3 | | | | NetBSD 1.4.1 | | | | | | | | | OpenBSD 2.6 | | FreeBSD 3.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | BSD/OS 4.1 FreeBSD 4.0 | | | | | NetBSD 1.4.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | FreeBSD 3.5 | | | | | OpenBSD 2.7 | | | | | | | | | | | FreeBSD 3.5.1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | *---FreeBSD 4.1 | | | | | | | | | | | (?) | | | | | FreeBSD 4.1.1 | | / | | | | | | | | / | | | | | FreeBSD 4.2 Darwin/ | NetBSD 1.4.3 | | | | Mac OS X | OpenBSD 2.8 BSD/OS 4.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10.0 NetBSD 1.5 | | | FreeBSD 4.3 | | | | | | | | | | OpenBSD 2.9 | | | | | NetBSD 1.5.1 | | | | | | | | | | FreeBSD 4.4-. | | NetBSD 1.5.2 | | | | | Mac OS X | | | | | | | 10.1 | | OpenBSD 3.0 | | FreeBSD 4.5 | | | | | | | | \ | | | | BSD/OS 4.3 | FreeBSD 4.6 \ | | | OpenBSD 3.1 | | | \ | | NetBSD 1.5.3 | | | FreeBSD 4.6.2 Mac OS X | | | | | 10.2 | | | | FreeBSD 4.7 | | | | | | | NetBSD 1.6 OpenBSD 3.2 | | FreeBSD 4.8 | | | | | | | | | NetBSD 1.6.1 | | | |--------. | | | OpenBSD 3.3 BSD/OS 5.0 | | \ | | | | | | FreeBSD 4.9 | | | | OpenBSD 3.4 BSD/OS 5.1 ISE | | | | | | | | | | | | NetBSD 1.6.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | OpenBSD 3.5 | | | | | v |
| FreeBSD 4.10 | | | | | | | | | | | FreeBSD 4.11 | | | | | | | | | | `-|------|-----------------|---------------------. | | | | \ FreeBSD 5.0 | | | | | | | | | FreeBSD 5.1 | | | DragonFly 1.0 | \ | | | | | ----- Mac OS X | | | | 10.3 | | | FreeBSD 5.2 | | | | | | | | | | | FreeBSD 5.2.1 | | | | | | | | | *-------FreeBSD 5.3 | | | | | | | | OpenBSD 3.6 | | | | NetBSD 2.0 | | | | | | | | | DragonFly 1.2.0 | | Mac OS X | | NetBSD 2.0.2 | | | | 10.4 | | | | | | FreeBSD 5.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | OpenBSD 3.7 | | | | | | NetBSD 2.0.3 | | | | | | | | | | *--FreeBSD | | | | v OpenBSD 3.8 | | 6.0 | | | | | | | | | | | \ | | | | | | | NetBSD 2.1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | NetBSD 3.0 | | | | | | | | | | DragonFly 1.4.0 | | | | | | | OpenBSD 3.9 | | FreeBSD | | | | | | | | 6.1 | | | | | | | | | FreeBSD 5.5 | | | | | | | | | | | NetBSD 3.0.1 | DragonFly 1.6.0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | OpenBSD 4.0 | | | | | | NetBSD 3.0.2 | | | | | | NetBSD 3.1 | | | FreeBSD 6.2 | | | | | | | | | DragonFly 1.8.0 | | | | OpenBSD 4.1 | | | | | | DragonFly 1.10.0 | | Mac OS X | | | | | 10.5 | | | | | | | OpenBSD 4.2 | | | | NetBSD 4.0 | | | FreeBSD 6.3 | | | | | | \ | | | | | *--FreeBSD | | | | | DragonFly 1.12.0 | 7.0 | | | | | |
| | | | | | OpenBSD 4.3 | | | | | | NetBSD 4.0.1 | DragonFly 2.0.0 | | FreeBSD | | OpenBSD 4.4 | | | 6.4 | | | | | | | | | | | FreeBSD 7.1 | | | | | | | | | DragonFly 2.2.0 | FreeBSD 7.2 | NetBSD 5.0 OpenBSD 4.5 | | \ | | | \ | | | | Mac OS X | | \ | | | | 10.6 | | \ | | | | | | | NetBSD | DragonFly 2.4.0 | | | | | 5.0.1 OpenBSD 4.6 | | | | | | | | | *--FreeBSD | | | | | | | | 8.0 | | | | | | | | | FreeBSD | | | NetBSD | | | | 7.3 | | | 5.0.2 | DragonFly 2.6.0 | | | | | | OpenBSD 4.7 | | FreeBSD | | | | | | | 8.1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | DragonFly 2.8.2 | | | | | \ OpenBSD 4.8 | | | | | | NetBSD | | | FreeBSD FreeBSD | | 5.1 | | | 8.2 7.4 | | | | DragonFly 2.10.1 | | | | | OpenBSD 4.9 | | `-----. Mac OS X | | | | | \ 10.7 | | | | | | | | | OpenBSD 5.0 | *--FreeBSD | | | | | | | 9.0 | | | NetBSD 5.1.2 | DragonFly 3.0.1 | v FreeBSD | | | | | 8.3 | | OpenBSD 5.1 | | Mac OS X | | | | 10.8 | | | | | NetBSD 6.0 | | | | | | | | | NetBSD 7.0 | | | | | | | FreeBSD 10 -current | NetBSD -current OpenBSD -current | | | | | | v v v v v
Chronology of the BSD genealogy
Time tolerance is about six months plus or minus, depending on which book or article be consulted. It makes a difference if considering as 'release' the announcement in Usenet or another public medium, or if considering as release the moment when it was made publicly available. The latter is more correct.
Multics 1965
Unics 1969 June. DEC PDP-7
Research Unics First Edition 1971 Nov 3rd [QCU]. DEC PDP-11/20, Assembly
Research Unics Second Edition 1972 June 12th [QCU]. 10 Unics installations
Research Unics Third Edition 1973 Feb [QCU]. Pipes, 16 Unics installations
Research Unics Fourth Edition 1973 November [QCU]. Rewriting in C effected. Renamed to Unix. Above 30 Unix installations
Research Unix Fifth Edition 1974 June [QCU]. Above 50 Unix installations
Research Unix Sixth Edition 1975 May [QCU]. Port to DEC Vax
Research Unix Seventh Edition 1979 January [QCU]. First portable Unix
Research Unix Seventh Edition (Version 7) was the first widely distributed version of Unics, released unsupported by Bell Laboratories in late 1978 or early 1979. The term is used adjectivally to describe Unics features or also programmes that date from that release, and are thus guaranteed to be present and portable in all Unics versions (this was the standard gauge of portability before the Official Standard IEEE POSIX 1003). The name 'Version 7' is not meant to be the 'seventh version of Unix'. Research Unix at Bell Laboratories has traditionally been numbered according to the edition of the associated documentation. Only the widely distributed Sixth and Seventh Editions are sometimes called 'Version', while the system that might today be known as `Version 10' is instead known as 'Research Unix Tenth Edition'. For this reason, 'Version 7' is read as 'Research Unix Seventh Edition'. Some purists, impatient with commercialism and kernel bloat, maintain that Version 7 was the Last True Unix. Ergo, the other ones are only variations on the theme, which in this document of CSS Dixieland are called 'Unics' for avoiding confusion, and because 'Unix' is still a legally protected trade mark.
Research Unix Eighth Edition 1985 Feb [QCU]. VAX 11/750, VAX 11/780 [dmr]. Descended from 4.1 BSD [44B] or from from 4.1c BSD [dmr]. Scooping-out and replacement of character-device and networking part by the streams mechanism.
Research Unix Ninth Edition 1986 September [QCU]
Research Unix Tenth Edition 1989 October [QCU]
1BSD Late 1977
1978 March 9th [QCU]. PDP-11, Pascal, ex(1)
30 free copies of 1BSD given, 35 tapes sold for 50 USD [QCU]
2BSD Mid 1978 [QCU] 1979 May 10th [TUHS]. 75 2BSD tapes sent
2.79BSD 1980-04-xx [TUHS]
2.8BSD 1981-07-xx [KSJ]
2.8.1BSD 1982-01-xx [QCU] Set of performance improvements
2.9BSD 1983-07-xx [KSJ]
2.9.1BSD 1983-11-xx [TUHS]
2.9BSD-Seismo 1985-08-xx [SMS]
2.10BSD 1987-04-xx [KKK]
2.10.1BSD 1989-01-xx [SMS]
2.11BSD 1992-02-xx [SMS]
2.11BSD rev 430 1999-12-13 [SMS]
32V 1978-1[01]-xx [QCU]
3BSD Late 1979 [QCU] March 1980 [TUHS]. Virtual memory, page
replacement, demand paging
4.0BSD 1980-10-xx
4.1BSD 1981-07-08 [DOC]
4.1aBSD 1982-04-xx Alpha release, 100 sites, networking [44B]
4.1bBSD internal release, fast filesystem [44B]
4.1cBSD Late 1982 Beta release, IPC [44B]
4.2BSD 1983-09-xx [QCU] 1983-08-03 [DOC]
BSD Unics Release 4.2, also correctly called 4.2 BSD or BSD 4.2, but not 'version 4.2'. Such naming conventions apply to all BSD Unics Releases, from 1 BSD (late 1977) to 4.4 BSD Lite Release 2 (June 1995), which was the final distribution from the Computer Science Research Group at Berkeley.
4.3BSD 1986-06-xx [QCU]
1986-04-05 [KB], [DOC]
4.3BSD Tahoe 1988-06-15 [QCU], [DOC]
4.3BSD NET/1 1988-11-xx [QCU]
1989-01-01 [DOC]
4.3BSD Reno 1990-06-29 [QCU], [DOC]
4.3BSD NET/2 1991-06-28 [QCU], [DOC]
386 BSD Jolix, a freeware port of BSD Net/2 to Intel 80386 processor, created by Mister William Jolitz, Lynne Greer Jolitz et alii. The name '386 BSD Jolix' is used in order to differentiate from another BSDI port, based on the same source tape, which used to be called 'BSD/386' and is now called 'BSD/OS'.
BSD/386 ALPHA 1991-12-xx [BSDI] First code released outside BSDI
386BSD 0.0 1992-02-xx [DOC]
BSD/386 0.3.1 1992-04-xx [BSDI] First ext. beta; B customers
BSD/386 0.3.3 1992-06-xx [BSDI] First CDROM version
386BSD 0.1 1992-07-28 [DOC]
4.4BSD Alpha 1992-07-07
BSD/386 0.9.3 1992-10-xx [BSDI] First external gamma; G customers
BSD/386 0.9.4 1992-12-xx [BSDI] It would have been 1.0 except for request
for preliminary injunction
BSD/386 1.0 1993-03-xx [BSDI] Injunction denied; first official release
NetBSD 0.8 1993-04-20 [NBD]
4.4BSD 1993-06-01 [USE]
NetBSD 0.9 1993-08-23 [NBD]
FreeBSD 1.0 1993-11-01 [FBD]
FreeBSD 1.0.2 1993-11-14 [FBD] Supersedes 1.0, 13 days after release.
BSD/386 1.1 1994-02-xx [BSDI]
4.4BSD Lite 1994-03-01 [USE]
FreeBSD 1.1 1994-05-07 [FBD]
FreeBSD 1.1.5 1994-06-30 [FBD]
FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 1994-07-05 [FBD] Supersedes 1.1.5, 5 days after release.
NetBSD 1.0 1994-10-26 [NBD]
386BSD 1.0 1994-11-12 [USE]
FreeBSD 2.0 1994-11-23 [FBD]
BSD/OS 2.0 1995-01-xx [BSDI] Based on 4.4 Lite
FreeBSD 2.0.5 1995-06-10 [FBD]
BSD/OS 2.0.1 1995-06-xx [BSDI]
4.4BSD Lite R 2 1995-06-xx [44B] The true final distribution from the CSRG
FreeBSD 2.1.0 1995-11-19 [FBD]
NetBSD 1.1 1995-11-26 [NBD]
BSD/OS 2.1 1996-01-xx [BSDI]
FreeBSD 2.1.5 1996-07-14 [FBD]
NetBSD 1.2 1996-10-04 [NBD]
OpenBSD 2.0 1996-10-18 [OBD]
FreeBSD 2.1.6 1996-11-16 [FBD]
FreeBSD 2.1.6.1 1996-11-25 [FBD] (sendmail security release)
Rhapsody 1997-xx-xx
FreeBSD 2.1.7 1997-02-20 [FBD]
BSD/OS 3.0 1997-02-xx [BSDI] Based on 4.4 Lite 2
FreeBSD 2.2.0 1997-03-16 [FBD]
FreeBSD 2.2.1 1997-03-25 [FBD]
FreeBSD 2.2.2 1997-05-16 [FBD]
NetBSD 1.2.1 1997-05-20 [NBD] (patch release)
OpenBSD 2.1 1997-06-01 [OBD]
FreeBSD 2.2.5 1997-10-22 [FBD]
OpenBSD 2.2 1997-12-01 [OBD]
NetBSD 1.3 1998-01-04 [NBD]
FreeBSD 2.2.6 1998-03-25 [FBD]
NetBSD 1.3.1 1998-03-09 [NBD] (patch release)
BSD/OS 3.1 1998-03-xx [BSDI]
OpenBSD 2.3 1998-05-19 [OBD]
NetBSD 1.3.2 1998-05-29 [NBD] (patch release)
FreeBSD 2.2.7 1998-07-22 [FBD]
BSD/OS 4.0 1998-08-xx [BSDI]. 2-lock MP support, ELF executables
FreeBSD 3.0 1998-10-16 [FBD]. FreeBSD-3.0 is a snapshot from -current,
while 3.1 and 3.2 are from 3.x-stable, which was branched
quite some time after 3.0-release
FreeBSD 2.2.8 1998-11-29 [FBD]
OpenBSD 2.4 1998-12-01 [OBD]
NetBSD 1.3.3 1998-12-23 [NBD] (patch release)
FreeBSD 3.1 1999-02-15 [FBD]
BSD/OS 4.0.1 1999-03-xx [BSDI]
NetBSD 1.4 1999-05-12 [NBD]
FreeBSD 3.2 1999-05-17 [FBD]
OpenBSD 2.5 1999-05-19 [OBD]
NetBSD 1.4.1 1999-08-26 [NBD] (patch release)
FreeBSD 3.3 1999-09-17 [FBD]
OpenBSD 2.6 1999-12-01 [OBD]
FreeBSD 3.4 1999-12-20 [FBD]
BSD/OS 4.1 1999-12-xx [BSDI]
FreeBSD 4.0 2000-03-13 [FBD]
NetBSD 1.4.2 2000-03-19 [NBD] (patch release)
OpenBSD 2.7 2000-06-15 [OBD]
FreeBSD 3.5 2000-06-24 [FBD]
FreeBSD 4.1 2000-07-27 [FBD]
FreeBSD 3.5.1 2000-07-28 [FBD]
FreeBSD 4.1.1 2000-09-25 [FBD] (a network-only patch release)
FreeBSD 4.2 2000-11-21 [FBD]
NetBSD 1.4.3 2000-11-25 [NBD] (patch release)
BSD/OS 4.2 2000-11-29 [BSDI]
OpenBSD 2.8 2000-12-01 [OBD]
NetBSD 1.5 2000-12-06 [NBD]
Mac OS X 10.0 2001-03-24 [APL]
FreeBSD 4.3 2001-04-20 [FBD]
OpenBSD 2.9 2001-06-01 [OBD]
NetBSD 1.5.1 2001-07-11 [NBD] (patch release)
NetBSD 1.5.2 2001-09-13 [NBD] (patch release)
FreeBSD 4.4 2001-09-18 [FBD]
Mac OS X 10.1 2001-09-29 [APL]
OpenBSD 3.0 2001-12-01 [OBD]
FreeBSD 4.5 2002-01-29 [FBD]
BSD/OS 4.3 2002-03-14 [WRS]
OpenBSD 3.1 2002-05-19 [OBD]
FreeBSD 4.6 2002-06-15 [FBD]
NetBSD 1.5.3 2002-07-22 [NBD] (patch release)
FreeBSD 4.6.2 2002-08-15 [FBD] (patch release)
Mac OS X 10.2 2002-08-23 [APL]
NetBSD 1.6 2002-09-14 [NBD]
FreeBSD 4.7 2002-10-08 [FBD]
OpenBSD 3.2 2002-11-01 [OBD]
FreeBSD 5.0 2003-01-17 [FBD]. FreeBSD 5.0 is a separate branch from
-current, similar to 3.0.
FreeBSD 4.8 2003-04-03 [FBD]
NetBSD 1.6.1 2003-04-21 [NBD] (patch release)
OpenBSD 3.3 2003-05-01 [OBD]
BSD/OS 5.0 2003-05-?? [WRS]
FreeBSD 5.1 2003-06-09 [FBD]
Mac OS X 10.3 2003-10-24 [APL]
FreeBSD 4.9 2003-10-28 [FBD]
BSD/OS 5.1 ISE 2003-10-?? [WRS] (final version)
OpenBSD 3.4 2003-11-01 [OBD]
FreeBSD 5.2 2004-01-12 [FBD]
FreeBSD 5.2.1 2004-02-22 [FBD] (patch release)
NetBSD 1.6.2 2004-03-01 [NBD] (patch release)
OpenBSD 3.5 2004-04-01 [OBD]
FreeBSD 4.10 2004-05-27 [FBD]
DragonFly 1.0 2004-07-12 [DFB]
OpenBSD 3.6 2004-10-29 [OBD]
FreeBSD 5.3 2004-11-06 [FBD]
NetBSD 2.0 2004-12-09 [NBD]
FreeBSD 4.11 2005-01-25 [FBD]
DragonFly 1.2.0 2005-04-08 [DFB]
NetBSD 2.0.2 2005-04-14 [NBD] (security/critical release)
Mac OS X 10.4 2005-04-29 [APL]
FreeBSD 5.4 2005-05-09 [FBD] OpenBSD 3.7 2005-05-19 [OBD] NetBSD 2.0.3 2005-10-31 [NBD] (security/critical release) OpenBSD 3.8 2005-11-01 [OBD] FreeBSD 6.0 2005-11-01 [FBD] NetBSD 2.1 2005-11-02 [NBD] NetBSD 3.0 2005-12-23 [NBD] DragonFly 1.4.0 2006-01-08 [DFB] OpenBSD 3.9 2006-05-01 [OBD] FreeBSD 6.1 2006-05-08 [FBD] FreeBSD 5.5 2006-05-25 [FBD] NetBSD 3.0.1 2006-07-24 [NBD] (security/critical release) DragonFly 1.6.0 2006-07-24 [DFB] OpenBSD 4.0 2006-11-01 [OBD] NetBSD 3.0.2 2006-11-04 [NBD] (security/critical release) NetBSD 3.1 2006-11-04 [NBD] FreeBSD 6.2 2007-01-15 [FBD] DragonFly 1.8.0 2007-01-30 [DFB] OpenBSD 4.1 2007-05-01 [OBD] DragonFly 1.10.0 2007-08-06 [DFB] Mac OS X 10.5 2007-10-26 [APL] OpenBSD 4.2 2007-11-01 [OBD] NetBSD 4.0 2007-12-19 [NBD] FreeBSD 6.3 2008-01-18 [FBD] DragonFly 1.12.0 2008-02-26 [DFB] FreeBSD 7.0 2008-02-27 [FBD] OpenBSD 4.3 2008-05-01 [OBD] DragonFly 2.0.0 2008-07-21 [DFB] OpenBSD 4.4 2008-11-01 [OBD] FreeBSD 6.4 2008-11-28 [FBD] FreeBSD 7.1 2009-01-04 [FBD] DragonFly 2.2.0 2009-02-17 [DFB] NetBSD 5.0 2009-04-29 [NBD] OpenBSD 4.5 2009-05-01 [OBD] FreeBSD 7.2 2009-05-04 [FBD] Mac OS X 10.6 2009-06-08 [APL] NetBSD 5.0.1 2009-08-02 [NBD] (security/critical release) DragonFly 2.4.0 2009-09-16 [DFB] OpenBSD 4.6 2009-10-18 [OBD] FreeBSD 8.0 2009-11-26 [FBD] NetBSD 5.0.2 2010-02-12 [NBD] (security/critical release) FreeBSD 7.3 2010-03-23 [FBD] DragonFly 2.6.0 2010-03-28 [DFB] OpenBSD 4.7 2010-05-19 [OBD] FreeBSD 8.1 2010-07-24 [FBD] DragonFly 2.8.2 2010-10-30 [DFB] OpenBSD 4.8 2010-11-01 [OBD] NetBSD 5.1 2010-11-19 [NBD] FreeBSD 7.4 2011-02-24 [FBD] FreeBSD 8.2 2011-02-24 [FBD] DragonFly 2.10.1 2011-04-26 [DFB] OpenBSD 4.9 2011-05-01 [OBD] Mac OS X 10.7 2011-07-20 [APL] OpenBSD 5.0 2011-11-01 [OBD] FreeBSD 9.0 2012-01-12 [FBD] NetBSD 5.1.2 2012-02-02 [NBD] (security/critical release) DragonFly 3.0.1 2012-02-21 [DFB] FreeBSD 8.3 2012-04-18 [FBD] OpenBSD 5.1 2012-05-01 [OBD] Mac OS X 10.8 2012-07-25 [APL] NetBSD 6.0 2012-10-17 [NBD]
Sources of information for the classification and the chronology:
[44B] Marshall Kirk McKusick, Keith Bostic, Michael J. Karels, John
Quarterman. The Design and Implementation of the 4.4BSD Operating System.
[APL] Apple Macintosh. http://www.apple.com/macosx/
[BSDI] Berkeley Software Design Incorporated.
[DFB] DragonFly-BSD Project.
[DOC] README, COPYRIGHT on tape.
[FBD] Free-BSD Project.
[KB] Keith Bostic. BSD2.10 available from Usenix. comp.unix.sources,
Volume 11, Info 4, April 1987.
[KKK] Marshall Kirk McKusick, Keith Bostic. Michael J. Karels, Tahoe
announcement. comp.bugs.4bsd.ucb-fixes, 1988 June 15th.
[KSJ] Michael J. Karels, Carl F. Smith, William F. Jolitz.
Changes in the Kernel in 2.9BSD. Second Berkeley Software
Distribution Unics Version 2.9, 1983 July.
[NBD] Net-BSD Project.
[OBD] Open-BSD Project.
[QCU] Peter H. Salus. A quarter century of UNIX.
[SMS] Steven M. Schultz. 2.11BSD, UNIX for the PDP-11.
[TUHS] Unix Historical Society. http://minnie.tuhs.org/Unix_History/
[USE] Usenet announcement.
[WRS] Wind River Systems, Incorporated.
[dmr] Dennis Ritchie, via Electronic Mail
Characteristics of some Unics systems: short introduction to Minix
Minix version 3.3.0 can be used as a live compact disk (very few Unics systems offer live compact disk), or it can be installed to a hard disk. Either way, once with the session begun, an optional boot start kernel loader asks for kernel location and name, and for any switches (also called options, arguments, parameters) that must be passed to it. It is possible to load a generic kernel without switches, to load it with some specified switches, or to use a kernel loader command prompt. If choosing the command prompt we can probe devices or perform other operations before we boot-strap the kernel, then we quit the prompt and load the kernel as above, or from the prompt we load the kernel with or without switches. Once that we have finished those preliminary operations, and if we do not need switches, then we enter:
boot [ENTER]
Contrary to DOS, letter case is DIFFERENT in Unics. An upper case letter such as 'A' is seen as different from the same lower case letter, such as 'a'.
If the kernel begin boot-strapping without problems, it will show lines with various technical informations for a few seconds (or a few minutes, depending on the complexity of the installation). Those lines are logged for the session and can be consulted, for example for detecting devices or data set system mount points, or for changing configuration. That boot-strap log is erased after the session.
The command prompt will ask for a log-in name. We begin session as 'root':
root [ENTER]
"Root" is also known as "Super User" or "System Administrator", the man who commands awesome power in a Unics system, be it a single computer or a network of them. It is dangerous for a beginner to be "Root", because inadvertently he may command something fatal. It is recommended (not absolutely necessary) to create another account, and initially use that new account for normal operations. Some operations, however, require to be logged-in as Root. In that case we can become Super User by the "su" command, or we can re-start the system, logging-in as Root, perform the desired operations, re-starting again, and logging-in as non-Root user. Unics is a powerful system, full of advanced resources, but difficult to learn. The beginner is immediately thrown at the deep end, and expected to learn how to swim all on his own.
Logged-in as Root, the system will start the session from the home directory of Root. We can change to the top level directory by entering:
# chdir / [ENTER]
Fortunately, Minix and other Unics systems are VERY well documented, though it is necessary previous knowledge for understanding the somewhat cryptic explanations. Let us read one of those documents as an exercise, entering this line at the Minix prompt:
# less /usr/share/mk/bsd.README [ENTER]
If being in the correct path, we are now reading a detailed explanation for using the "make" command, which makes possible to install third-party software if we have an Internet connection. We are using the "less" viewer for reading the document. We scroll forward one window by pressing the letter "f", down half window by "d", backward one window by "b", or up half window by "u". There are many other commands, explained in the "less" page of the Manual.
After some experimenting, let us quit the viewer by pressing "q". We are back at the command prompt. The documentation is available in various formats, of which the most complete is the Unics Manual executed by the "man" command. The second in importance is the GNU Info format of the Free Software Foundation, executed by the "info" command. There are also ASCII plain text documents and some other formats. Let us see the contents of the Man directory by entering:
# ls -F /usr/share/man [ENTER]
Names followed by forward slash (/) are directories, followed by asterisk (*) are executables. We may go further into the branching tree and see what each directory contains, or we may use some initial commands such as this example:
# whatis man [ENTER]
Then we see the keyword "man" listed with number and a short definition. The "man" command is optionally followed by one of the numbers, then the keyword. If we do not give a number, we shall see only the first page available. If we wish to see all pages (maximum nine) for that keyword, we add the "-a" switch:
# man -a man [ENTER]
We are now seeing the Unics Manual page for the "man" command. We read it with the utmost attention, because it is our entry into the ocean of information that Unics has to offer. We scroll the page forward or backward as necessary. When we reach the end of the page, we are again automatically at the prompt. If we wish to see for example the Manual page on the "info" command, then:
# man -a info [ENTER]
And again we religiously peruse and take hand written notes of what we may consider necessary from those pages of the Unics Manual. Humorous legend has it that the name "man" given to that executable means that Unics is a system ONLY FOR REAL MEN, but after a bunch of humourless and sexually frustrated feminists loudly expressed their anger, then it was proclaimed that "man" stands for "Manual", thus hopefully appeasing the fury of the feminists (most of whom do not know much about computers, other than switching them on), and showing a face a little more "politically correct". At any rate, the Unics Manual is still for men. It takes intelligence and courage to read it all.
If we wish to know about some particular feature, but we do not know in what pages that feature is explained, then we call the "apropos" command for help. For instance, if we need information on the Gopher protocol, then we can do:
# apropos gopher [ENTER]
Seeing a list of pages that contain information about Gopher (the protocol invented by the University of Minnesota). And so on with the thousands of pages available for reading, though we need not read them all in one session. When we absolutely must stop reading and finish the session, then simply:
# poweroff [ENTER]
...and we can go to a very necessary sleep. Computer lovers should not be scared away by the hard path to Unics. On the contrary, it is hard precisely because IT IS for computer lovers. Luckily, there is plenty of information. For persons with access to Internet there are Unics tutorials, as well as Unics experts who may be of help to beginners. Libraries or book-shops may contain books on Unics. Casual users, unwilling to devote time and effort to serious study, can just play with the ubiquitous Windows system and a table mouse.
Of course Windows cannot offer, even by far, the huge amount of resources that Unics offers, but donkeys do not need so many resources. For them, the system of fashion has the "advantage" of being "user friendly", generally recommended by doctors as the appropriate operating system for feeble minds. The therapeutical choice for weak creatures, who are paralysed by terror in front of a command line. Intelligent souls well know the enormous difference that exists between those systems, and invariably opt for learning the "user unfriendly" command line of Unics (or of DOS), by patient delving into the documentation and by constant experimenting. The results always pay high.
A playful way of learning Unics is by executing the "fortune" programme with a collection of short advices called "tips", by the following:
# /usr/games/fortune/ /usr/share/games/fortune/tips [ENTER]
Information on the possibilities for using "fortune" can be learnt by:
# man fortune [ENTER]
Free-DOS uses only FAT 12, FAT 16 or FAT 32 data set systems, while Minix by default uses FS (BSD uses FFS), but it is possible to work with Free-DOS from BSD. For a computer with BSD installed in a partition (slice) of a hard disk or another boot-strappable volume, and Free-DOS in another partition, possible solution is to boot-strap BSD, then mount a FAT system in some mount point by using the "mount_msdos" command or the "mount" command with the -t switch, as:
# mount_msdos /dev/wd0e /mnt [ENTER]
Or also as...
# mount -t msdos /dev/wd0e /mnt [ENTER]
The above commands assume a DOS system (MS-DOS, Free-DOS, or another DOS) already existing in the same hard disk (specified by the "wd" letters) where BSD is located, which if having more than one disc, then it is the first disk (specified by the "0"), with DOS in the "e" partition (slice) of that disk, and with DOS appearing in the /mnt directory from the top level (root) of the BSD tree. Then it will be possible to work with the DOS stored in that partition, to copy between DOS and BSD using the /mnt directory as mount point. To see the top level content of the DOS partition, do:
# ls /mnt [ENTER]
Better to use the words "top level" for naming the initial level of the tree of directories, than the word "root". Not only because "root", as a synonym of "top level", suggests an inverted tree with roots at the top and branches at the bottom (which is unknown in any real-life trees), but mainly because "Root" is also synonymous with "Super User" or "System Administrator".
To copy for example a document called HUGETEXT.TXT, located in the BOREREAD directory of the DOS partition, to the current BSD directory, then enter:
# cp /mnt/BOREREAD/HUGETEXT.TXT . [ENTER]
The final dot (.) is necessary in BSD, it means "the current directory". For executing a programme or pointing to any other record, either a full path or the dot (.) that indicates the current directory must be used. For instance, for playing the game "Hack" we can change to its directory, which if being located in its original place, then it is done by the command:
# chdir /usr/games [ENTER]
We verify that we are in the right directory by the command:
# pwd [ENTER]
Then we execute the "Hack" programme, adding optional switches, by either of:
# ./hack [switches] [ENTER]
# /usr/games/hack [switches] [ENTER]
It must be noted that BSD (Unics in general) indicates a directory by forward slash (/), while DOS uses backward slash (\). There are other differences. The BSD commands "mount_msdos" or "mount" are respectively explained by:
# man -a mount_msdos [ENTER]
# man -a mount [ENTER]
The game of "Hack" is explained in its Manual page by entering either of:
# man -a hack [ENTER]
# man 6 hack [ENTER]
And so for every command, programme or resource with a Manual page available.
WARNING:
Unics accepts a bigger set of characters for names of data sets than DOS accepts by default. For instance, the 'plus' character (+) is perfectly valid in Unics names, but not in DOS. The Hyper Text version of the Unics Manual contains names such as C++.html, which cannot be used directly from DOS. The DOS command DIR will show C++~1.HTM (with only three characters after the dot, and registered in upper case if not using Long Name software for DOS), but the DOS commands COPY, MOVE, RENAME (REN), ERASE (DEL), et cetera, will be unable to find C++~1.HTM
The most straightforward solution is to rename the offensive data set FROM Unics, because it cannot be renamed from DOS. After renaming it to for example C_PLUS.HTM, then it can be copied to the DOS partition (slice). If it had inadvertently be copied with the original name (invalid for DOS), then it is not even possible to erase it from DOS without appropriate Long Name software. Thus the system must be re-started, the Unics operating system boot-strapped, and the offensive data set renamed or erased from the DOS partition using Unics. After that, to work from DOS is perfectly possible.
Also note that DOS text editors or viewers often use as line breaks Carriage Return (ASCII character 13 or Ctrl + M) and Line Feed (ASCII character 10 or Ctrl + J), while Unics uses only Line Feed (and Macintosh uses only Carriage Return). DOS sometimes uses as end of line the character Back Slash n (ASCII \n), and as end of data set the pseudo character EOF (End Of File). A text document may need to be converted to the convention used by the operating system. BSD as well as Free-DOS have software for that purpose. BSD and most other Unics systems have some programmes that can make the conversion both ways, such as the MTOOLS collection. Free-DOS has the executable TRCH.EXE that can make the conversion between DOS and Unics conventions both ways, or which can do any other text processing involving the need of transcribing characters. There is international support by using the optional Cats library, available from the Free-DOS Project and from other locations.
As for character encoding, 7-bit (Standard) ASCII is common to DOS and Unics, but adjusts may need to be made if using often the 8-bit (Extended) ASCII set. That is because DOS uses the IBM variety of 8-bit ASCII, while most Unics systems (especially recent ones) are more likely to use the ANSI variety of 8-bit ASCII (variety also known as ISO 8859-1 Latin 1). The English language uses Standard ASCII almost exclusively, but other human languages may need to use Extended ASCII, Unicode, or another appropriate character set for letters with diacritic marks, such as accents, umlaut, or for other special symbols. A solution might be to use Hyper Text instead of using plain text, because HTML version 4.0 or later adopts Unicode. Thus, almost all HTML interpreters (made after 1999 or so) will recognise most of the character definitions (by number or by mnemonic) of Hyper Text, which correspond to 8-bit (Extended) ASCII, and most HTML interpreters made after that year also have a fairly high chance of representing with a correct glyph at least a part of the many thousands of characters that exist in Unicode.
Much of what has been explained for BSD is also valid for Minix, because the two systems are related and also because they share much common software. There are a few, but important differences. Data set systems, device names, paths, default configuration and other characteristics are different. Minix tends to be easier for a 'beginner', though here the word 'beginner' must be understood as a 'beginner in Unics', not as an absolute beginner in Computing. No Unics system is made for total beginners, albeit a few try to make the learning path a little less difficult. Let us assume that the beginner in Unics be already an expert in DOS, the Disk Operating System (for instance Free-DOS), and explain how to work with data sets between Minix and DOS, both ways, by the time-honoured, venerable traditional method of the floppy disk.
In Minix there are three executables called 'dosdir', 'dosread', 'doswrite'. Their Manual pages explain them. For instance for 'dosdir' it can be entered:
man dosdir
The page can be scrolled forward by Space bar, F, Page down, D, Arrow down. Backward by B, Page up, U, Arrow up. Exited by Q. There are other commands, explained in the Manual pages of the 'man', 'less' executables.
The floppy disk is accessed by either of the commands:
dosdir -r /dev/fd0
dosdir -l /dev/fd0
The '-r' switch gives only names, the '-l' switch gives also dates and sizes.
A data set is read by:
dosread /dev/fd0 XXXXXXXX.XXX
...where the 'X' characters represent the name and type of the data set. They should be written in capital letters for DOS, if not using long name driver.
The 'greater than' character is for 'output to'. It can be used for directing the text to a data set in Minix, for example:
dosread /dev/fd0 MINIXDOS.TXT > /home/MINIXDOS.TXT
A data set is written by:
doswrite /dev/fd0 XXXXXXXX.XXX < /home/XXXXXXXX.XXX
...where the 'X' characters represent the name and type of the data set. They should be written in capital letters for DOS, if not using long name driver.
The 'lesser than' character is for 'input from'. It can be used for directing the text to a data set in DOS, for example:
doswrite /dev/fd0 MINIXDOS.TXT < /home/MINIXDOS.TXT
All the operations above can be done from Minix, but not from DOS. Only the next operation should be done from DOS, with editable data sets already in DOS: the lines created by the text editor in Minix are not truncated except by a 'new line', they should be manually adapted by Edit text editor in DOS. The Minix software understands the DOS convention of carriage return and line feed, and converts it to the Unics convention of line feed only (without the carriage return), but it is advisable to finish the editing from DOS itself.
WARNING: when using Minix as a boot-strappable compact disk (without a hard disk) a data set system is mounted in Random Access Memory as read-only. It is possible to create or modify text documents using Ed (line editor) or Vi (page editor), but with three important considerations. The first is that the work will be lost when switching off or reboot-strapping the computer, or in case of power failure, if it had not been saved to an external volume. The second is that the default buffer will not admit a text document bigger than about 300 Kilobytes. The third is that the temporary copy is stored in the temporary directory, located at /tmp (the tmp directory from the top level).
All the above means that, if editing documents, it is advisable to work from the /tmp directory as current, to limit the document to 300 Kilobytes or a little more, and to save often to an external volume, for example to a floppy disk, using the Minix executables 'dosdir', 'dosread', 'doswrite'. In other words, Minix can perfectly be used with no more than a compact disk drive (for boot-strapping the live disk), a floppy disk drive and some floppy disks (for storage of editing work), and the minimum hardware requirements for the Minix system (Intel Pentium or compatible processor is recommended, plus 16 Megabytes of Random Access Memory, a keyboard, a screen or printer). A mouse or another pointing device is not necessary. Minix is a jewel for the user who likes or needs to work with a computer of limited resources. Hard core !
Computers even more limited than it has been indicated above, cannot execute Minix, nor most other Unics systems. For very limited computers of the IBM Personal Computer architecture, a solution might be Free-DOS or other DOS systems. For computers of architectures other than IBM Personal Computer or its clones, other solutions may exist. Possibly Net-BSD or Open-BSD, or older versions of them. The wide range of machine types and resources that exist or have existed in the History of Computing makes it difficult to offer specific advice. Fortunately there is Internet, where the owner of an Apple Macintosh, Atari ST, Commodore Amiga, Sinclair Spectrum or QL, or of other today more or less uncommon computers, can find information and software, using for example a public computer from a library or Internet cafe, or a connected computer of some acquaintance or corporation. Good luck in the search for old treasures !
Basic commands for most Unics systems
These are the commands most commonly used in Unics. An approximate equivalent in Disk Operating Systems has been included for convenience of those who know DOS better than Unics, but the equivalence must be taken with some reserve because DOS and Unics work differently in some aspects. Nonetheless it is a valid introduction, to be complemented by careful reading of the available documentation, and by personal experimenting.
Unics command: Approximate equivalent
in DOS, if applicable:
cat type
cd
chdir cd, chdir
copy
cp copy
df
ed edlin
env set
environ set
export set
ENV=$HOME/.xxxx; export ENV
fortune fortune
fstab, mtab (FAT-access executables)
grep (find string) (various executables)
info help
install setup
less more
ls dir
ls -f Show unordered
ls -F Show directories with forward slashes
and executables with asterisks
man help
man -a Show all available pages of that name
Some other important Unics Manual pages are,
with their names separated by commas:
apropos, boot, config, dosdir, dosread, doswrite, ed,
env, file, grep, hier, info, install, intro, less,
look, machine, man, mandoc, mount, sort, spell, uname,
usage, useradd, vi, whatis, whereis, which
(list based on Minix 3.3.0 of 2014)
md
mkdir md, mkdir
more more
morse
mount
mount -t cd9660 -r /dev/cd0a /cdrom
mount -t msdos /dev/fd0a /floppy
move
mv move
poweroff fdapm poweroff
ps (processes running)
pstat
pwd
reboot fdapm coldboot
rename ren, rename
rm del, erase
rmdir rd, rmdir
setenv set
sort (sort list) (various executables)
umount
usage setup
vi, view, ex edit, pg, list
wc (word count) (various executables)
who (logged users) (not applicable)
xdm
Most of the operational Unics commands
These do not include all the thousands of executables made by third parties, but include what might be termed 'base distribution', which is part of most Unics systems, except the small ones, and which usually has a manual page available in Man format, Info format, or in another easily readable format. The lines below, with their descriptions, correspond to Minix version 3.3.0 of 2014 (the information has been taken from the /usr/man directory of that Unics system). The number in parenthesis corresponds to the 1 to 9 topic sections of the manual (some commands appear in more than one section). All available sections for a given command can be seen by entering the parameter '-a' after the 'man' command and before the command name. For instance, for seeing all pages entitled 'config' the following command line can be entered:
man -a config
...which will show the page of the command 'config' in section 1, and then the page of a command of the same name in section 8 (the two commands are not necessarily alike). When finishing one page, the next catenated page is seen by entering the colon and the 'n' key from the 'less' viewer, as in:
:n
The 'less' viewer is the default pagination executable, though others can be used. The respective sections can be seen separately by entering either of:
man 1 config
man 8 config
The descriptions listed below can be seen by the 'whatis' command, if having the 'whatis.db' data base in the correct path.
Minix 3.3.0
All the commands available in the base distribution of Minix version 3.3.0 of 2014. Most of them work from the 'live' compact disk (hard disk not needed).
ATF (7) - introduction to the Automated Testing Framework GElf (3) - class-independent API for ELF manipulation Kyuafile (5) - Test suite description files MAKEDEV, DESCRIBE (8) - make/describe device files MD2Init, MD2Update, MD2Final, MD2End, MD2File, MD2Data (3) - calculate the RSA Data Security, Inc., ``MD2'' message digest MD4Init, MD4Update, MD4Final, MD4End, MD4File, MD4Data (3) - calculate the RSA Data Security, Inc., ``MD4'' message digest MD5Init, MD5Update, MD5Final, MD5End, MD5File, MD5Data (3) - calculate the RSA Data Security, Inc., ``MD5'' message digest RMD160Init, RMD160Update, RMD160Final, RMD160Transform, RMD160End, RMD160File, RMD160Data (3) - calculate the ``RIPEMD-160'' message digest SHA1Init, SHA1Update, SHA1Final, SHA1Transform, SHA1End, SHA1File, SHA1Data (3) - calculate the NIST Secure Hash Algorithm SHA256_Init, SHA256_Update, SHA256_Pad, SHA256_Final, SHA256_Transform, SHA256_End, SHA256_File, SHA256_FileChunk, SHA256_Data (3) - calculate the NIST Secure Hash Standard (version 2) TZ (5) - Time zone environment variable __builtin_object_size (3) - return the size of the given object _lwp_makecontext (3) - create a new initial light-weight process execution context a64l, l64a, l64a_r (3) - convert between a long integer and a base-64 ASCII string abort (3) - cause abnormal program termination about (1) - Shows general program information abs, labs, llabs, imaxabs (3) - functions for integer absolute value accept (2) - accepts incoming connections on a socket access (2) - determine accessibility of file acos, acosf, acosl (3) - arc cosine function acosh, acoshf, acoshl (3) - inverse hyperbolic cosine function add_route, del_route (8) - configure IP routing. adjtime (2) - correct the time to allow synchronization of the system clock adventure (6) - an exploration game alarm (3) - set signal timer alarm alloca (3) - memory allocator apropos (1) - locate commands by keyword lookup arc4random, arc4random_buf, arc4random_uniform, arc4random_stir, arc4random_addrandom (3) - arc4 random number generator archive_clear_error, archive_compression, archive_compression_name, archive_copy_error, archive_errno, archive_error_string, archive_file_count, archive_format, archive_format_name, archive_set_error (3) - libarchive utility functions archive_entry_acl_add_entry, archive_entry_acl_add_entry_w, archive_entry_acl_clear, archive_entry_acl_count, archive_entry_acl_next, archive_entry_acl_next_w, archive_entry_acl_reset, archive_entry_acl_text_w, archive_entry_atime, archive_entry_atime_nsec, archive_entry_clear, archive_entry_clone, archive_entry_copy_fflags_text, archive_entry_copy_fflags_text_w, archive_entry_copy_gname, archive_entry_copy_gname_w, archive_entry_copy_hardlink, archive_entry_copy_hardlink_w, archive_entry_copy_link, archive_entry_copy_link_w, archive_entry_copy_pathname_w, archive_entry_copy_sourcepath, archive_entry_copy_stat, archive_entry_copy_symlink, archive_entry_copy_symlink_w, archive_entry_copy_uname, archive_entry_copy_uname_w, archive_entry_dev, archive_entry_devmajor, archive_entry_devminor, archive_entry_filetype, archive_entry_fflags, archive_entry_fflags_text, archive_entry_free, archive_entry_gid, archive_entry_gname, archive_entry_hardlink, archive_entry_ino, archive_entry_mode, archive_entry_mtime, archive_entry_mtime_nsec, archive_entry_nlink, archive_entry_new, archive_entry_pathname, archive_entry_pathname_w, archive_entry_rdev, archive_entry_rdevmajor, archive_entry_rdevminor, archive_entry_set_atime, archive_entry_set_ctime, archive_entry_set_dev, archive_entry_set_devmajor, archive_entry_set_devminor, archive_entry_set_filetype, archive_entry_set_fflags, archive_entry_set_gid, archive_entry_set_gname, archive_entry_set_hardlink, archive_entry_set_link, archive_entry_set_mode, archive_entry_set_mtime, archive_entry_set_pathname, archive_entry_set_rdevmajor, archive_entry_set_rdevminor, archive_entry_set_size, archive_entry_set_symlink, archive_entry_set_uid, archive_entry_set_uname, archive_entry_size, archive_entry_sourcepath, archive_entry_stat, archive_entry_symlink, archive_entry_uid, archive_entry_uname (3) - functions for manipulating archive entry descriptions archive_read_disk_new, archive_read_disk_set_symlink_logical, archive_read_disk_set_symlink_physical, archive_read_disk_set_symlink_hybrid, archive_read_disk_entry_from_file, archive_read_disk_gname, archive_read_disk_uname, archive_read_disk_set_uname_lookup, archive_read_disk_set_gname_lookup, archive_read_disk_set_standard_lookup, archive_read_close, archive_read_finish (3) - functions for reading objects from disk archive_read_new, archive_read_set_filter_options, archive_read_set_format_options, archive_read_set_options, archive_read_support_compression_all, archive_read_support_compression_bzip2, archive_read_support_compression_compress, archive_read_support_compression_gzip, archive_read_support_compression_lzma, archive_read_support_compression_none, archive_read_support_compression_xz, archive_read_support_compression_program, archive_read_support_compression_program_signature, archive_read_support_format_all, archive_read_support_format_ar, archive_read_support_format_cpio, archive_read_support_format_empty, archive_read_support_format_iso9660, archive_read_support_format_mtree, archive_read_support_format_raw, archive_read_support_format_tar, archive_read_support_format_zip, archive_read_open, archive_read_open2, archive_read_open_fd, archive_read_open_FILE, archive_read_open_filename, archive_read_open_memory, archive_read_next_header, archive_read_next_header2, archive_read_data, archive_read_data_block, archive_read_data_skip, archive_read_data_into_buffer, archive_read_data_into_fd, archive_read_extract, archive_read_extract2, archive_read_extract_set_progress_callback, archive_read_close, archive_read_finish (3) - functions for reading streaming archives archive_write_disk_new, archive_write_disk_set_options, archive_write_disk_set_skip_file, archive_write_disk_set_group_lookup, archive_write_disk_set_standard_lookup, archive_write_disk_set_user_lookup, archive_write_header, archive_write_data, archive_write_finish_entry, archive_write_close, archive_write_finish (3) - functions for creating objects on disk archive_write_new, archive_write_set_format_cpio, archive_write_set_format_pax, archive_write_set_format_pax_restricted, archive_write_set_format_shar, archive_write_set_format_shar_binary, archive_write_set_format_ustar, archive_write_get_bytes_per_block, archive_write_set_bytes_per_block, archive_write_set_bytes_in_last_block, archive_write_set_compression_bzip2, archive_write_set_compression_compress, archive_write_set_compression_gzip, archive_write_set_compression_none, archive_write_set_compression_program, archive_write_set_compressor_options, archive_write_set_format_options, archive_write_set_options, archive_write_open, archive_write_open_fd, archive_write_open_FILE, archive_write_open_filename, archive_write_open_memory, archive_write_header, archive_write_data, archive_write_finish_entry, archive_write_close, archive_write_finish (3) - functions for creating archives arithmetic (6) - quiz on simple arithmetic asa (1) - interpret carriage-control characters ascii (7) - the ASCII character set. asctime, asctime_r, ctime, ctime_r, ctime_rz, difftime, gmtime, gmtime_r, localtime, localtime_r, localtime_rz, mktime, mktime_z, tzalloc, tzgetname, tzfree, (3) - convert date and time to ASCII asin, asinf, asinl (3) - arc sine function asinh, asinhf, asinhl (3) - inverse hyperbolic sine function at (1) - execute commands at a later time at_quick_exit (3) - registers a cleanup function to run on quick exit atan, atanf, atanl (3) - arc tangent function of one variable atan2, atan2f, atan2l (3) - arc tangent function of two variables atanh, atanhf, atanhl (3) - inverse hyperbolic tangent function atexit (3) - register a function to be called on exit atf-c++-api, ATF_ADD_TEST_CASE, ATF_CHECK_ERRNO, ATF_FAIL, ATF_INIT_TEST_CASES, ATF_PASS, ATF_REQUIRE, ATF_REQUIRE_EQ, ATF_REQUIRE_ERRNO, ATF_REQUIRE_IN, ATF_REQUIRE_MATCH, ATF_REQUIRE_NOT_IN, ATF_REQUIRE_THROW, ATF_REQUIRE_THROW_RE, ATF_SKIP, ATF_TEST_CASE, ATF_TEST_CASE_BODY, ATF_TEST_CASE_CLEANUP, ATF_TEST_CASE_HEAD, ATF_TEST_CASE_NAME, ATF_TEST_CASE_USE, ATF_TEST_CASE_WITH_CLEANUP, ATF_TEST_CASE_WITHOUT_HEAD, atf::utils::cat_file, atf::utils::compare_file, atf::utils::copy_file, atf::utils::create_file, atf::utils::file_exists, atf::utils::fork, atf::utils::grep_collection, atf::utils::grep_file, atf::utils::grep_string, atf::utils::redirect, atf::utils::wait (3) - C++ API to write ATF-based test programs atf-c-api, ATF_CHECK, ATF_CHECK_MSG, ATF_CHECK_EQ, ATF_CHECK_EQ_MSG, ATF_CHECK_MATCH, ATF_CHECK_MATCH_MSG, ATF_CHECK_STREQ, ATF_CHECK_STREQ_MSG, ATF_CHECK_ERRNO, ATF_REQUIRE, ATF_REQUIRE_MSG, ATF_REQUIRE_EQ, ATF_REQUIRE_EQ_MSG, ATF_REQUIRE_MATCH, ATF_REQUIRE_MATCH_MSG, ATF_REQUIRE_STREQ, ATF_REQUIRE_STREQ_MSG, ATF_REQUIRE_ERRNO, ATF_TC, ATF_TC_BODY, ATF_TC_BODY_NAME, ATF_TC_CLEANUP, ATF_TC_CLEANUP_NAME, ATF_TC_HEAD, ATF_TC_HEAD_NAME, ATF_TC_NAME, ATF_TC_WITH_CLEANUP, ATF_TC_WITHOUT_HEAD, ATF_TP_ADD_TC, ATF_TP_ADD_TCS, atf_tc_get_config_var, atf_tc_get_config_var_wd, atf_tc_get_config_var_as_bool, atf_tc_get_config_var_as_bool_wd, atf_tc_get_config_var_as_long, atf_tc_get_config_var_as_long_wd, atf_no_error, atf_tc_expect_death, atf_tc_expect_exit, atf_tc_expect_fail, atf_tc_expect_pass, atf_tc_expect_signal, atf_tc_expect_timeout, atf_tc_fail, atf_tc_fail_nonfatal, atf_tc_pass, atf_tc_skip, atf_utils_cat_file, atf_utils_compare_file, atf_utils_copy_file, atf_utils_create_file, atf_utils_file_exists, atf_ut ils_fork, atf_utils_free_charpp, atf_utils_grep_file, atf_utils_grep_string, atf_utils_readline, atf_utils_redirect, atf_utils_wait (3) - C API to write ATF-based test programs atf-check (1) - executes a command and analyzes its results atf-formats (5) - machine-parseable data formats used by ATF atf-interface (1) - Description of the ATF test program interface atf-report (1) - Kyua-based implementation of the deprecated atf-report atf-run (1) - Kyua-based implementation of the deprecated atf-run atf-sh (1) - interpreter for shell-based test programs atf-test-case (4) - generic description of test cases atf-test-program (1) - common interface to ATF test programs atf2kyua (1) - Converts Atffiles to Kyuafiles for a particular test suite. atf_add_test_case, atf_check, atf_check_equal, atf_config_get, atf_config_has, atf_expect_death, atf_expect_exit, atf_expect_fail, atf_expect_pass, atf_expect_signal, atf_expect_timeout, atf_fail, atf_get, atf_get_srcdir, atf_pass, atf_require_prog, atf_set, atf_skip, atf_test_case (3) - POSIX shell API to write ATF-based test programs atof (3) - convert ASCII string to double atoi (3) - convert ASCII string to integer atol (3) - convert ASCII string to long integer atoll (3) - convert ASCII string to long long integer atomic_add, atomic_add_32, atomic_add_int, atomic_add_long, atomic_add_ptr, atomic_add_64, atomic_add_32_nv, atomic_add_int_nv, atomic_add_long_nv, atomic_add_ptr_nv, atomic_add_64_nv (3) - atomic add operations atomic_and, atomic_and_32, atomic_and_uint, atomic_and_ulong, atomic_and_64, atomic_and_32_nv, atomic_and_uint_nv, atomic_and_ulong_nv, atomic_and_64_nv (3) - atomic logical `and' operations atomic_cas, atomic_cas_32, atomic_cas_uint, atomic_cas_ulong, atomic_cas_ptr, atomic_cas_64, atomic_cas_32_ni, atomic_cas_uint_ni, atomic_cas_ulong_ni, atomic_cas_ptr_ni, atomic_cas_64_ni (3) - atomic compare-and-swap operations atomic_dec, atomic_dec_32, atomic_dec_uint, atomic_dec_ulong, atomic_dec_ptr, atomic_dec_64, atomic_dec_32_nv, atomic_dec_uint_nv, atomic_dec_ulong_nv, atomic_dec_ptr_nv, atomic_dec_64_nv (3) - atomic decrement operations atomic_inc, atomic_inc_32, atomic_inc_uint, atomic_inc_ulong, atomic_inc_ptr, atomic_inc_64, atomic_inc_32_nv, atomic_inc_uint_nv, atomic_inc_ulong_nv, atomic_inc_ptr_nv, atomic_inc_64_nv (3) - atomic increment operations atomic_ops (3) - atomic memory operations atomic_or, atomic_or_32, atomic_or_uint, atomic_or_ulong, atomic_or_64, atomic_or_32_nv, atomic_or_uint_nv, atomic_or_ulong_nv, atomic_or_64_nv (3) - atomic logical `or' operations atomic_swap, atomic_swap_32, atomic_swap_uint, atomic_swap_ulong, atomic_swap_ptr, atomic_swap_64 (3) - atomic swap operations awk (1) - pattern-directed scanning and processing language backtrace (3) - fill in the backtrace of the currently executing thread backup (8) - backup files banner (1) - print strings in large letters basename (3) - return the last component of a pathname basename, dirname (1) - return filename or directory portion of pathname bcd, ppt, morse (6) - reformat input as punch cards, paper tape or morse code bcmp (3) - compare byte string bcmp, bcopy, bzero, ffs, index, rindex, strcasecmp, strncasecmp (3) - string operations bcopy (3) - copy byte string bdes (1) - encrypt/decrypt using the Data Encryption Standard bind (2) - binds an address to a socket bm_comp, bm_exec, bm_free (3) - Boyer-Moore string search boot (8) - system bootstrapping procedures boot.cfg (5) - configuration file for /boot brk, sbrk (2) - change data segment size bsearch (3) - binary search of a sorted table bsfilt, colcrt (1) - a colcrt-like backspace filter bswap16, bswap32, bswap64 (3) - byte-order swapping functions btowc (3) - convert a single byte character to a wide character btrace (8) - block-level tracing interface btree (3) - btree database access method build-root (7) - Mechanics of build directories bzero (3) - write zeroes to a byte string bzip2, bunzip2, bzcat, bzip2recover (1) - block-sorting file compressor cabs, cabsf, cabsl (3) - return a complex absolute value cacos, cacosf, cacosl (3) - complex arc cosine functions cacosh, cacoshf, cacoshl (3) - complex arc hyperbolic cosine functions cal (1) - displays a calendar calendar (1) - reminder service carg, cargf, cargl (3) - complex argument functions casin, casinf, casinl (3) - complex arc sine functions casinh, casinhf, casinhl (3) - complex arc hyperbolic sine functions cat (1) - concatenate and print files catan, catanf, catanl (3) - complex arc tangent functions catanh, catanhf, catanhl (3) - complex arc hyperbolic tangent functions catclose (3) - close message catalog catgets (3) - retrieve string from message catalog catopen (3) - open message catalog cawf, nroff (1) - C version of the nroff-like, Amazingly Workable (text) Formatter cbrt, cbrtf, cbrtl, sqrt, sqrtf, sqrtl (3) - cube root and square root functions ccos, ccosf, ccosl (3) - complex cosine functions ccosh, ccoshf, ccoshl (3) - complex hyperbolic cosine functions cdb (5) - format of the constant database cdbr cdbr_open, cdbr_entries, cdbr_get, cdbr_find, cdbr_close, cdbr_write (3) - constant database access methods cdbw_open, cdbw_put, cdbw_put_data, cdbw_put_key, cdbw_stable_seeder, cdbw_output, cdbw_close (3) - create constant databases cdprobe (8) - guess where the Minix CD is ceil, ceilf, ceill, floor, floorf floorl (3) - ceiling and floor cexp, cexpf, cexpl (3) - complex exponential functions cfgetispeed, cfsetispeed, cfgetospeed, cfsetospeed, cfsetspeed, cfmakeraw, tcgetattr, tcsetattr (3) - manipulating the termios structure cgetent, cgetset, cgetmatch, cgetcap, cgetnum, cgetstr, cgetustr, cgetfirst, cgetnext, cgetclose, cexpandtc (3) - capability database access routines chdir, fchdir (2) - change current working directory checknr (1) - check nroff/troff files chgat, wchgat, mvchgat, mvwchgat (3) - curses on-screen attribute manipulation routines chgrp (1) - change group chmod (1) - change file modes chmod, fchmod (2) - change mode of file chown (8) - change file owner and group chown, fchown (2) - change owner and group of a file chpass, chfn, chsh (1) - add or change user database information chroot (2) - change root directory chroot (8) - change root directory cimag, cimagf, cimagl (3) - complex imaginary functions cksum, md2, md4, md5, rmd160, sha1, sum (1) - display file checksums and block counts cleantmp (8) - clean out a tmp dir clearerr, feof, ferror, fileno (3) - check and reset stream status clock (3) - determine processor time used clock_settime, clock_gettime, clock_getres (2) - clock and timer functions clog, clogf, clogl (3) - complex natural logarithm functions close (2) - delete a descriptor closefrom (3) - delete many descriptors cmp (1) - compare two files col (1) - filter reverse line feeds from input colcrt (1) - filter nroff output for CRT previewing colorbars (6) - display ANSI color bars colrm (1) - remove columns from a file column (1) - columnate lists comm (1) - select or reject lines common to two files compress, uncompress, zcat (1) - compress a file using modified Lempel-Ziv coding config (1) - Inspects the values of the loaded configuration config (8) - configuring MINIX 3 tasks and servers configfile (5) - generic configuration file format confstr (3) - get string-valued configurable variables conj, conjf, conjl (3) - complex conjugate functions connect (2) - connects a socket console, keyboard, log (4) - system console consttime_memequal (3) - compare byte strings for equality without timing leaks controller, disk, tape, at, bios, esdi, aha1540, ncr810, dosfile, fatfile (4) - controllers, disks and tapes copysign, copysignf, copysignl (3) - functions to manipulate signs cos, cosf (3) - cosine function cosh, coshf (3) - hyperbolic cosine function cp (1) - copy files cpio (1) - copy file archives in and out cpio (5) - format of cpio archive files cpow, cpowf, cpowl (3) - complex power functions cproj, cprojf, cprojl (3) - complex projection functions cpuset_create, cpuset_destroy, cpuset_zero, cpuset_set, cpuset_clr, cpuset_isset, cpuset_size (3) - dynamic CPU sets crc (1) - print the checksum of the file data creal, crealf, creall (3) - complex real functions creat (2) - create a new file creat (3) - create a new file cron (8) - clock daemon crontab (1) - User crontab manipulation crontab (5) - table of jobs to be performed by cron crypt, setkey, encrypt, des_setkey, des_cipher (3) - password encryption csin, csinf, csinl (3) - complex sine functions csinh, csinhf, csinhl (3) - complex hyperbolic sine functions csplit (1) - split files based on context csqrt, csqrtf, csqrtl (3) - complex square root functions ctags (1) - create a tags file ctan, ctanf, ctanl (3) - complex tangent functions ctanh, ctanhf, ctanhl (3) - complex hyperbolic tangent functions ctermid (3) - generate terminal pathname current_field, field_index, form_page, form_max_page, set_current_field, set_form_page (3) - form library current_item, item_index, set_current_item, set_top_row top_row (3) - get or set item pointers or top row curses (3) - screen functions with ``optimal'' cursor motion curses_addch, addch, waddch, mvaddch, mvwaddch (3) - curses add characters to windows routines curses_addchstr, addchstr, waddchstr, addchnstr, waddchnstr, mvaddchstr, mvwaddchstr, mvaddchnstr, mvwaddchnstr (3) - curses add character strings to windows routines curses_addstr, addstr, waddstr, addnstr, waddnstr, mvaddstr, mvwaddstr, mvaddnstr, mvwaddnstr (3) - curses add character strings to windows routines curses_attributes, attron, attroff, attrset, color_set, getattrs, termattrs, wattron, wattroff, wattrset, wcolor_set, attr_on, attr_off, attr_set, attr_get, term_attrs, wattr_on, wattr_off, wattr_set, wattr_get (3) - curses general attribute manipulation routines curses_background, bkgd, bkgdset, getbkgd, wbkgd, wbkgdset (3) - curses attribute manipulation routines curses_border, border, box, wborder (3) - curses border drawing routines curses_clear, clear, wclear, clearok, clrtobot, clrtoeol, erase, werase, wclrtobot, wclrtoeol (3) - curses clear window routines curses_color, has_colors, can_change_color, start_color, init_pair, pair_content, COLOR_PAIR, PAIR_NUMBER, init_color, color_content, no_color_attributes (3) - curses color manipulation routines curses_cursor, getcury, getcurx, getyx, getbegy, getbegx, getbegyx, getmaxy, getmaxx, getmaxyx, getpary, getparx, getparyx, move, wmove, mvcur, wcursyncup (3) - curses cursor and window location and positioning routines curses_default_colors, assume_default_colors, use_default_colors (3) - curses default colours setting routines curses_delch, delch, wdelch (3) - curses delete characters routines curses_deleteln, deleteln, wdeleteln (3) - curses delete single line routines curses_echochar, echochar, wechochar, pechochar (3) - curses add characters and then refresh routines curses_fileio, getwin, putwin (3) - curses file input/output routines curses_inch, inch, winch, inchnstr, mvinchnstr, winchnstr, mvwinchnstr, inchstr, mvinchstr, winchstr, mvwinchstr, innstr, winnstr, mvinnstr, mvwinnstr, instr, winstr mvinstr, mvwinstr (3) - curses read screen contents routines curses_input, getch, wgetch, mvgetch, mvwgetch, define_key, keyok, getnstr, wgetnstr, mvgetnstr, mvwgetnstr, getstr, wgetstr, mvgetstr, mvwgetstr, keypad, notimeout, timeout, wtimeout, nodelay, ungetch (3) - curses input stream routines curses_insdelln, insdelln, winsdelln (3) - curses insert or delete lines routines curses_insert, insch, winsch, mvinsch, mvwinsch (3) - curses insert characters routines curses_insertln, insertln, winsertln (3) - curses insert single line routines curses_keyname, keyname (3) - curses report key name routine curses_line, hline, whline, vline, wvline, mvhline, mvwhline, mvvline, mvwvline (3) - curses draw lines on windows routines curses_pad, newpad, subpad, prefresh, pnoutrefresh (3) - curses pad routines curses_print, printw, wprintw, mvprintw, mvwprintw, unctrl (3) - curses print formatted strings on windows routines curses_refresh, refresh, wrefresh, wnoutrefresh, doupdate, leaveok, flushok (3) - curses terminal update routines curses_scanw, scanw, wscanw, mvscanw, mvwscanw (3) - curses read formatted data from screen routines curses_screen, newterm, set_term, delscreen, endwin, initscr, isendwin, resizeterm, setterm (3) - curses terminal and screen routines curses_scroll, scrl, wscrl scroll, scrollok, setscrreg, wsetscrreg (3) - curses window scrolling routines curses_standout, standout, standend, wstandout, wstandend (3) - curses standout attribute manipulation routines curses_termcap, fullname (3) - curses termcap querying routines curses_touch, touchline, touchoverlap, touchwin, untouchwin, wtouchln, is_linetouched, is_wintouched, redrawwin, wredrawln, wsyncup, wsyncdown (3) - curses window modification routines curses_tty, beep, flash, curs_set, def_prog_mode, reset_prog_mode, def_shell_mode, reset_shell_mode, echo, noecho, delay_output, erasechar, flushinp, gettmode, halfdelay, has_ic, has_il, idcok, idlok, intrflush, noqiflush, qiflush, killchar, meta, napms, nl, nonl, cbreak, nocbreak, raw, noraw, savetty, resetty (3) - curses terminal manipulation routines curses_underscore, underscore, underend, wunderscore, wunderend (3) - curses underscore attribute manipulation routines curses_window, copywin, dupwin, delwin, derwin, mvwin, mvderwin, newwin, overlay, overwrite, subwin, wresize (3) - curses window routines cut (1) - select portions of each line of a file daemon (3) - run in the background date (1) - display or set date and time db-exec (1) - Executes a SQL statement in the store database db-migrate (1) - Upgrades the schema of an existing database dbm_clearerr, dbm_close, dbm_delete, dbm_dirfno, dbm_error, dbm_fetch, dbm_firstkey, dbm_nextkey, dbm_open, dbm_store, ndbm (3) - database functions dbopen, db (3) - database access methods dd (1) - convert and copy a file debug (1) - Executes a single test case with facilities for debugging dehumanize_number, humanize_number (3) - format a number into a human readable form and vice versa deroff (1) - remove nroff/troff, eqn, pic and tbl constructs dev (4) - device files in /dev devname (3) - get device name df (1) - display free disk space dhcp.conf (5) - dynamic host configuration protocol configuration dhcpd (8) - dynamic host configuration protocol daemon dhrystone (1) - integer benchmark diff (1) - differential file and directory comparator dir (5) - directory layout dirname (3) - report the parent directory name of a file pathname diskctl (8) - control disk drive div, ldiv, lldiv, imaxdiv (3) - quotient and remainder from division dosdir (1) - list an MS-DOS directory [IBM] dosread (1) - read a file from an MS-DOS diskette [IBM] doswrite (1) - write a file onto an MS-DOS diskette [IBM] drand48, erand48, lrand48, nrand48, mrand48, jrand48, srand48, seed48, lcong48 (3) - pseudo-random number generators and initialization routines du (1) - display disk usage statistics dup, dup2 (2) - duplicate a descriptor dup_field, free_field, link_field, new_field (3) - form library dynamic_field_info, field_info (3) - form library echo (1) - write arguments to the standard output ed (1) - text editor editline, el_init, el_init_fd, el_end, el_reset, el_gets, el_wgets, el_getc, el_wgetc, el_push, el_wpush, el_parse, el_wparse, el_set, el_wset, el_get, el_wget, el_source, el_resize, el_cursor, el_line, el_wline, el_insertstr, el_winsertstr, el_deletestr, el_wdeletestr, history_init, history_winit, history_end, history_wend, history, history_w, tok_init, tok_winit, tok_end, tok_wend, tok_reset, tok_wreset, tok_line, tok_wline, tok_str tok_wstr (3) - line editor, history and tokenization functions editrc (5) - configuration file for editline library eject (1) - eject removable media elf (3) - API for manipulating ELF objects elf32_checksum, elf64_checksum, gelf_checksum (3) - return the checksum of an ELF object elf32_getehdr, elf64_getehdr, gelf_getehdr (3) - retrieve the object file header elf32_getphdr, elf64_getphdr, gelf_getphdr (3) - retrieve an ELF program header table elf32_getshdr, elf64_getshdr, gelf_getshdr (3) - retrieve the class-dependent section header elf32_newehdr, elf64_newehdr, gelf_newehdr (3) - retrieve or allocate the object file header elf32_newphdr, elf64_newphdr, gelf_newphdr (3) - allocate an ELF program header table elf32_xlate, elf64_xlate, gelf_xlate (3) - translate data between files and memory elf_begin (3) - open an ELF file or ar(1) archive elf_cntl (3) - control an elf file descriptor elf_end (3) - release an ELF descriptor elf_errmsg, elf_errno (3) - ELF library error message handling elf_fill (3) - set fill byte for inter-section padding elf_flagdata, elf_flagehdr, elf_flagelf, elf_flagphdr, elf_flagscn, elf_flagshdr (3) - manipulate flags associated with ELF(3) data structures elf_getarhdr (3) - retrieve ar(1) header for an archive member elf_getarsym (3) - retrieve the symbol table of an archive elf_getbase (3) - get the base offset for an object file elf_getdata, elf_newdata, elf_rawdata (3) - iterate through or allocate section data elf_getident (3) - return the initial bytes of a file elf_getphnum (3) - return the number of program headers in an ELF file elf_getscn, elf_ndxscn, elf_newscn, elf_nextscn (3) - get or allocate section information for an ELF object elf_getshnum (3) - return the number of sections in an ELF file elf_getshstrndx, elf_setshstrndx (3) - retrieve or update the index of the section name string table elf_hash (3) - compute a hash value for a string elf_kind (3) - determine ELF file type elf_memory (3) - process an ELF or ar(1) archive mapped into memory elf_next (3) - provide sequential access to the next archive member elf_rand (3) - provide sequential access to the next archive member elf_rawfile (3) - return uninterpreted contents of an ELF file elf_strptr (3) - retrieve a string pointer in a string table elf_update (3) - update an ELF descriptor elf_version (3) - retrieve or set ELF library operating version endutxent, getutxent, getutxid, getutxline, pututxline, setutxent (3) - user accounting database functions env (1) - set and print environment environ (7) - user environment eqn (7) - eqn language reference for mandoc erf, erff, erfc, erfcf (3) - error function operators err, verr, errx, verrx, warn, vwarn, warnx, vwarnx (3) - formatted error messages esetfunc, easprintf, efopen, emalloc, ecalloc, erealloc, estrdup, estrndup, estrlcat, estrlcpy, evasprintf (3) - error-checked utility functions ether_ntoa, ether_aton, ether_ntohost, ether_hostton, ether_line, (3) - get ethers entry ethers (5) - ethernet address to hostname database ex, vi, view (1) - text editors execl, execlp, execle, exect, execv, execvp (3) - execute a file execve (2) - execute a file exit (3) - perform normal program termination exit, _exit (2) - terminate a process exp, expf, exp2, exp2f, expm1, expm1f, (3) - exponential functions expand, unexpand (1) - expand tabs to spaces, and vice versa explicit_memset (3) - guarantee writing a byte to a byte string expr (1) - evaluate expression extattr_copy_file, extattr_copy_fd, extattr_copy_link, cpxattr, fcpxattr, lcpxattr (3) - copy extended attributes from a file to another one extattr_namespace_to_string, extattr_string_to_namespace (3) - convert an extended attribute namespace identifier to a string and vice versa fabs, fabsf (3) - floating-point absolute value function factor (6) - factor a number false (1) - return false value fbdctl (8) - Faulty Block Device rule management interface fclose (3) - close a stream fcntl (2) - miscellaneous file descriptor control functions fd (4) - floppy disk fdim, fdimf, fdiml (3) - positive difference functions fdisk (8) - partition a hard disk [IBM] fdopendir, opendir, readdir, readdir_r, telldir, seekdir, rewinddir, closedir, dirfd (3) - directory operations feclearexcept, fegetexceptflag, feraiseexcept, fesetexceptflag, fetestexcept (3) - floating-point exception flag manipulation feclearexcept, fegetexceptflag, feraiseexcept, fesetexceptflag, fetestexcept, fegetround, fesetround, fegetenv, feholdexcept, fesetenv, feupdateenv, feenableexcept, fedisableexcept, fegetexcept (3) - floating-point environment control feenableexcept, fedisableexcept, fegetexcept (3) - floating-point exception masking fegetenv, feholdexcept, fesetenv, feupdateenv (3) - floating-point environment save and restore fegetround, fesetround (3) - floating-point rounding control fetch (1) - retrieve a file by Uniform Resource Locator fflush, fpurge (3) - flush a stream ffs (3) - find first bit set in a bit string fgetc, getc, getchar, getc_unlocked, getchar_unlocked, getw (3) - get next character or word from input stream fgetln (3) - get a line from a stream fgetpos, fseek, fseeko, fsetpos, ftell, ftello, rewind (3) - reposition a stream fgets, gets (3) - get a line from a stream fgetwc, getwc, getwchar, (3) - get next wide character from input stream fgetwln (3) - get a line of wide characters from a stream fgetws (3) - get a line of wide characters from a stream field_arg, field_type, set_field_type (3) - form library field_back, field_fore, field_pad, set_field_back, set_field_fore, set_field_pad (3) - form library field_buffer, field_status, set_field_buffer, set_field_printf, set_field_status, set_max_field (3) - form library field_count, form_fields, move_field, set_form_fields (3) - form library field_init, field_term, form_init, form_term, set_field_init, set_field_term, set_form_init, set_form_term (3) - form library field_just, set_field_just (3) - form library field_opts, field_opts_off, field_opts_on, set_field_opts (3) - form library field_userptr, set_field_userptr (3) - form library file (1) - determine file type find (1) - walk a file hierarchy finger (1) - user information lookup program fingerd (8) - remote user information server finite, finitef (3) - tests for finite values flex, lex (1) - fast lexical analyzer generator flexdoc (1) - fast lexical analyzer generator flockfile, ftrylockfile, funlockfile (3) - stdio stream locking functions fmax, fmaxf, fmaxl, fmin, fminf, fminl (3) - floating-point maximum and minimum functions fmemopen (3) - open a stream that points to the given buffer fmod, fmodf, fmodl (3) - floating-point remainder function fmtcheck (3) - sanitizes user-supplied printf(3)-style format string fmtmsg (3) - format and display a message fnmatch (3) - match filename or pathname using shell glob rules fold (1) - fold long lines for finite width output device fopen, fdopen, freopen (3) - stream open functions fork (2) - create a new process form (3) - form library form_driver (3) - form library form_opts, form_opts_off, form_opts_on, set_form_opts (3) - form library form_sub, form_win, scale_form, set_form_sub, set_form_win (3) - form library form_userptr, set_form_userptr (3) - form library format (1) - format a PC floppy diskette fortune (6) - print a random, hopefully interesting, adage fparseln (3) - return the next logical line from a stream fpclassify (3) - classify real floating type fpgetmask, fpgetprec, fpgetround, fpgetsticky, fpsetmask, fpsetprec, fpsetround, fpsetsticky (3) - IEEE FP mode control fpr (1) - print Fortran file fputc, putc, putchar, putc_unlocked, putchar_unlocked, putw (3) - output a character or word to a stream fputs, puts (3) - output a line to a stream fputwc, putwc, putwchar, (3) - output a wide character to a stream fputws (3) - output a line of wide characters to a stream fread, fwrite (3) - binary stream input/output free_fieldtype, link_fieldtype, new_fieldtype, set_fieldtype_arg, set_fieldtype_choice (3) - form library free_form, new_form (3) - form library free_item, new_item (3) - create or delete menu item free_menu, new_menu (3) - create or delete a menu frexp (3) - convert floating-point number to fractional and integral components from (1) - print names of those who have sent mail fsck (1) - perform file system consistency check fsck (8) - file system consistency check and interactive repair fsck_ext2fs (8) - ext2 File System consistency check and interactive repair fsplit (1) - split a multi-routine Fortran file into individual files fstab, mtab (5) - list of file systems to mount, mounted file system table. ftok (3) - create IPC identifier from path name ftp (1) - Internet file transfer program ftpd (8) - Internet File Transfer Protocol server ftpd.conf (5) - ftpd(8) configuration file ftpusers, ftpchroot (5) - ftpd(8) access control file fts, fts_open, fts_read, fts_children, fts_set, fts_close (3) - traverse a file hierarchy ftw, nftw (3) - traverse (walk) a file tree funopen, funopen2, fropen, fropen2, fwopen, fwopen2 (3) - open a stream fwide (3) - get/set orientation of a stream gai_strerror (3) - get error message string from EAI_xxx error code gelf_fsize, elf32_fsize, elf64_fsize (3) - return the size of a file type gelf_getcap, gelf_update_cap (3) - read and update ELF capability information gelf_getclass (3) - retrieve the class of an ELF descriptor gelf_getdyn, gelf_update_dyn (3) - read and update ELF dynamic entries gelf_getmove, gelf_update_move (3) - read and update Elf Move information gelf_getrel, gelf_update_rel (3) - read and update ELF relocation entries gelf_getrela, gelf_update_rela (3) - read and update ELF relocation entries with addends gelf_getsym, gelf_update_sym (3) - read and update symbol information gelf_getsyminfo, gelf_update_syminfo (3) - read and update symbol information gelf_getsymshndx, gelf_update_symshndx (3) - read and update symbol information using extended section indices gelf_update_ehdr, gelf_update_phdr, gelf_update_shdr (3) - update underlying ELF data structures genassym (1) - emit an assym.h file getaddrinfo, freeaddrinfo, allocaddrinfo (3) - host and service name to socket address structure getbsize (3) - get user block size getcwd, getwd (3) - get working directory pathname getdate, getdate_err (3) - convert user format date and time getdelim, getline (3) - read a delimited record from a stream getdevmajor (3) - get block or character device major number getdirentries (3) - get directory entries in a filesystem independent format getdiskbyname, setdisktab (3) - get generic disk description by its name getdomainname, setdomainname (3) - get/set domain name of current host getdtablesize (3) - get descriptor table size getenv, getenv_r, putenv, setenv, unsetenv (3) - environment variable functions getfsent, getfsspec, getfsfile, setfsent, endfsent (3) - get file system descriptor file entry getfsspecname (3) - get the underlying wedge name from a label getgid, getegid (2) - get group identity getgrent, getgrent_r, getgrgid, getgrgid_r, getgrnam, getgrnam_r, setgroupent, setgrent, endgrent (3) - group database operations getgrouplist, getgroupmembership, (3) - calculate group access list gethostbyname, gethostbyname2, gethostbyaddr, gethostent, sethostent, endhostent, herror, hstrerror (3) - get network host entry gethostid, sethostid (3) - get or set unique identifier of current host gethostname, sethostname (3) - get or set name of current host getifaddrs (3) - get interface addresses getitimer, setitimer (2) - get and set value of interval timer getlastlogx, getutmp, getutmpx, updlastlogx, updwtmpx, utmpxname (3) - user accounting database functions getloadavg (3) - get system load averages getmntinfo (3) - get information about mounted file systems getmntopts (3) - scan mount options getmode, setmode (3) - modify mode bits getnameinfo (3) - socket address structure to hostname and service name getnetent, getnetbyaddr, getnetbyname, setnetent, endnetent (3) - get network entry getnetgrent, innetgr, setnetgrent, endnetgrent (3) - netgroup database operations getnucred (2) - obtain the credentials that correspond to the given endpoint. getopt (1) - parse command options getopt (3) - get option character from command line argument list getopt_long (3) - get long options from command line argument list getpagesize (3) - get system page size getpass (3) - get a password getpeereid (2) - get the effective user ID and effective group ID of a peer connected through a Unics domain socket. getpeereid (3) - get the effective credentials of a Unics-domain peer getpeername (2) - get the name/address of the connected peer. getpid, getppid (2) - get process identification getpriority, setpriority (2) - get and set scheduling priority getprogname, setprogname (3) - get/set the name of the current program getprotoent, getprotobynumber, getprotobyname, setprotoent, endprotoent (3) - get protocol entry getpwent, getpwent_r, getpwnam, getpwnam_r, getpwuid, getpwuid_r, setpassent, setpwent, endpwent (3) - password database operations getrusage (2) - get information about resource utilization getservent, getservbyport, getservbyname, setservent, endservent (3) - get service entry getsockname (2) - get the current name or address of a socket. getsockopt (2) - get the value of a socket option. getsubopt (3) - get sub options from an argument gettimeofday (2) - get date and time getttyent, getttynam, setttyent, setttyentpath, endttyent (3) - get ttys file entry getty (8) - system login banner gettytab (5) - terminal configuration data base getuid, geteuid (2) - get user identity getusershell, setusershell, endusershell (3) - get valid user shells getvfsstat (2) - get list of all mounted file systems glob, globfree, glob_pattern_p (3) - generate pathnames matching a pattern grantpt (3) - grant access to a slave pseudo-terminal device grep, egrep, fgrep, zgrep, zegrep, zfgrep (1) - file pattern searcher group (8) - manage group information on the system groupadd (8) - add a group to the system groupdel (8) - remove a group from the system groupinfo (8) - displays group information groupmod (8) - modify an existing group on the system groups (1) - show group memberships gzexe (1) - create auto-decompressing executables gzip (1) - compression/decompression tool using Lempel-Ziv coding (LZ77) halt (8) - abruptly stop the system hash (3) - hash database access method hcreate, hcreate_r, hdestroy, hdestroy_r, hsearch, hsearch_r (3) - manage hash search table head (1) - display first lines of a file help (1) - Shows usage information hexdump (1) - ascii, decimal, hexadecimal, octal dump hgfs (8) - VMware Host/Guest File System server hier (7) - Description of the file system hierarchy host (1) - look up host names using domain server hostaddr (1) - show ethernet address, IP address or hostname hostname (1) - set or print name of current host system hosts (5) - hostname to IP address database htonl, htons, ntohl, ntohs (3) - convert values between host and network byte order http_status (5) - HTTP status numbers and their meanings httpd, in.httpd, dir2html (8) - a web server for Minix 2 and Minix 3 httpd.conf httpd.mtype (5) - configuration files for the Minix httpd web server hypot, hypotf (3) - Euclidean distance and complex absolute value functions i2cscan (8) - scan an IIC bus for devices iconv_open, iconv_close, iconv (3) - codeset conversion functions id (1) - return user identity if_nametoindex, if_indextoname, if_nameindex, if_freenameindex (3) - provide mappings between interface names and indexes ifconfig (8) - configure a TCP/IP device ifdef (1) - remove #ifdefs from a file ilogb, ilogbf, ilogbl (3) - an unbiased exponent indent (1) - indent and format C program source index (3) - locate character in string inet, inet.conf (8) - TCP/IP server inet6_getscopeid, inet6_putscopeid (3) - IPv6 scope id encoding and decoding functions inet6_opt_init, inet6_opt_append, inet6_opt_finish, inet6_opt_set_val, inet6_opt_next, inet6_opt_find, inet6_opt_get_val (3) - IPv6 Hop-by-Hop and Destination Options manipulation inet6_option_space, inet6_option_init, inet6_option_append, inet6_option_alloc, inet6_option_next, inet6_option_find (3) - IPv6 Hop-by-Hop and Destination Options manipulation inet6_rth_space, inet6_rth_init, inet6_rth_add, inet6_rth_reverse, inet6_rth_segments, inet6_rth_getaddr (3) - IPv6 Routing Header Options manipulation inet6_rthdr_space, inet6_rthdr_init, inet6_rthdr_add, inet6_rthdr_lasthop, inet6_rthdr_reverse, inet6_rthdr_segments, inet6_rthdr_getaddr, inet6_rthdr_getflags (3) - IPv6 Routing Header Options manipulation inet_addr, inet_aton, inet_lnaof, inet_makeaddr, inet_netof, inet_network, inet_ntoa, inet_ntop, inet_pton, addr, ntoa, network (3) - Internet address manipulation routines inet_net_ntop, inet_net_pton (3) - Internet network number manipulation routines info (1) - read Info documents info (5) - readable online documentation infocmp (1) - compare or print compiled terminfo descriptions infokey (1) - compile customizations for Info init (8) - grandparent of all processes initgroups (3) - initialize supplementary group IDs insque, remque (3) - insert/remove element from a queue install (1) - install binaries install-info (1) - update info/dir entries installboot_nbsd (8) - install disk bootstrap software intr (8) - run a command with interrupts enabled intro, errno (2) - introduction to system calls and error numbers ioctl (2) - control device ip, eth, psip, udp, tcp (4) - Internet Protocol server devices and definitions irdpd (8) - internet router discovery protocol daemon isalnum (3) - alphanumeric character test isalpha (3) - alphabetic character test isalpha, isupper, islower, isdigit, isxdigit, isalnum, isspace, ispunct, isprint, isgraph, iscntrl, isblank, toupper, tolower, (3) - character classification and mapping functions isascii (3) - test for ASCII character isblank (3) - blank-space character test iscntrl (3) - control character test isdigit (3) - decimal-digit character test isfinite (3) - test for finite value isgraph (3) - printing character test (space character exclusive) isgreater, isgreaterequal, isless, islessequal, islessgreater, isunordered (3) - compare two floating-point numbers isinf (3) - test for infinity isinff, isnanf (3) - test for infinity or not-a-number islower (3) - lower-case character test isnan (3) - test for not-a-number isnormal (3) - test for normal value isodir (1) - list ISO9660 or High Sierra directories isoinfo (1) - list an ISO9660 or High Sierra volume descriptor isoread (1) - read a file in ISO9660 or High Sierra format isprint (3) - printing character test (space character inclusive) ispunct (3) - punctuation character test isspace (3) - white-space character test isupper (3) - upper-case character test iswalnum, iswalpha, iswblank, iswcntrl, iswdigit, iswgraph, iswlower, iswprint, iswpunct, iswspace, iswupper, iswxdigit (3) - wide character classification utilities iswctype (3) - test a character for character class identifier isxdigit (3) - hexadecimal-digit character test item_count, menu_items, set_menu_items (3) - attach items to menus or check correspondences item_description, item_name (3) - get item name or description item_init, item_term, menu_init, menu_term, set_item_init, set_item_term, set_menu_init, set_menu_term (3) - get or set handler functions for menu post/unpost or item change item_opts, item_opts_off, item_opts_on (3) - get or modify options for an item item_userptr, set_item_userptr (3) - get or set user pointer for an item item_value, set_item_value, item_selected (3) - get or set value for an item item_visible (3) - get visibility status of an item j0, j0f, j1, j1f, jn, jnf, y0, y0f, y1, y1f, yn, ynf (3) - Bessel functions of first and second kind jemalloc (3) - the default system allocator join (1) - relational database operator jot (1) - print sequential or random data keymap (5) - keyboard maps kill (1) - terminate or signal a process kill (2) - send signal to a process killpg (3) - send signal to a process group ksh (1) - Public domain Korn shell kyua (1) - Command-line interface to Kyua quality assurance toolkit kyua-atf-tester (1) - Scriptable interface to interact with ATF test programs kyua-plain-tester (1) - Scriptable interface to interact with plain test programs kyua-tester (1) - Scriptable interface to interact with test programs kyua-tester-list (5) - The test cases list printed by the Kyua testers kyua-tester-result (1) - Result files created by the Kyua testers kyua.conf (5) - Configuration file for the kyua tool lam (1) - laminate files last (1) - indicate last logins of users and ttys ld.elf_so (1) - run-time link-editor (linker) ldd (1) - list dynamic object dependencies ldexp, ldexpf (3) - multiply floating-point number by integral power of 2 leave (1) - remind you when you have to leave less (1) - opposite of more lessecho (1) - expand metacharacters lesskey (1) - specify key bindings for less lgamma, lgammaf, lgamma_r, lgammaf_r, gamma, gammaf, gamma_r, gammaf_r, tgamma, tgammaf (3) - log gamma function libarchive (3) - functions for reading and writing streaming archives libarchive-formats (5) - archive formats supported by the libarchive library libarchive_internals (3) - description of libarchive internal interfaces link (2) - make a hard link to a file link (8) - call the link() function link_addr, link_ntoa (3) - elementary address specification routines for link level access linkfarm (1) - manage symbolic links to package files list (1) - Lists test cases and their metadata listen (2) - listens for incoming connections on a socket llrint, llrintf, lrint, lrintf (3) - convert to integer ln (1) - make links loadfont (1) - load a font into the video card loadkeys (1) - load a keyboard map into the keyboard driver loadramdisk (8) - copy an image of a file system to /dev/ram lock (1) - reserve a terminal lockf (3) - record locking on files log, logf, log10, log10f, log1p, log1pf log2, log2f, (3) - logarithm functions logb, logbf, logbl, scalb, scalbf, significand, significandf (3) - IEEE test functions logger (1) - make entries in the system log login (1) - authenticate users and set up their session environment login, logout, logwtmp (3) - login utility functions login_getclass, login_getcapbool, login_getcapnum, login_getcapsize, login_getcapstr, login_getcaptime, login_getpwclass, login_close, setclasscontext, setusercontext (3) - query login.conf database about a user class loginx, logoutx, logwtmpx (3) - login utility functions logname (1) - display user's login name look (1) - find lines in a sorted list lorder (1) - list dependencies for object files lp (4) - line printer lp, lpd (1) - copy a file to the line printer ls (1) - list directory contents lsearch, lfind (3) - linear searching routines lseek (2) - move read/write pointer lspci (1) - print table of PCI devices lua (1) - Lua interpreter luac (1) - Lua compiler lzmainfo (1) - show information stored in the .lzma file header m4 (1) - macro language processor machine (1) - print machine type magic (5) - file command's magic pattern file magic_open, magic_close, magic_error, magic_descriptor, magic_buffer, magic_setflags, magic_check, magic_compile, magic_list, magic_load, magic_version (3) - Magic number recognition library mail (1) - send and receive electronic mail make (1) - maintain program dependencies makecontext, swapcontext (3) - manipulate user contexts makeinfo (1) - translate Texinfo documents makewhatis (8) - create a whatis.db database malloc, calloc, realloc, free (3) - general purpose memory allocation functions malloc, free, realloc, calloc, alloca (3) - general memory allocation operations man (1) - display the on-line manual pages (aka ``man pages'') man (7) - legacy formatting language for manual pages man (7) - nroff macro package for manual pages man.conf (5) - configuration file for manual pages mandoc (1) - format and display Unics manuals mandoc, mandoc_escape, man_meta, man_mparse, man_node, mchars_alloc, mchars_free, mchars_num2char, mchars_num2uc, mchars_spec2cp, mchars_spec2str, mdoc_meta, mdoc_node, mparse_alloc, mparse_free, mparse_getkeep, mparse_keep, mparse_readfd, mparse_reset, mparse_result, mparse_strerror, mparse_strlevel (3) - mandoc macro compiler library mandoc_char (7) - mandoc special characters math (3) - introduction to mathematical library functions mblen (3) - get number of bytes in a multibyte character mbrlen (3) - get number of bytes in a multibyte character (restartable) mbrtowc (3) - converts a multibyte character to a wide character (restartable) mbsinit (3) - determines whether the state object is in the initial state mbsrtowcs (3) - converts a multibyte character string to a wide-character string (restartable) mbstowcs (3) - converts a multibyte character string to a wide-character string mbtowc (3) - converts a multibyte character to a wide character mdoc (7) - semantic markup language for formatting manual pages membar_ops, membar_enter, membar_exit, membar_producer, membar_consumer, membar_sync (3) - memory access barrier operations memccpy (3) - copy string until character found memccpy, memchr, memcmp, memcpy, memmem, memmove, memset (3) - byte string operations memchr, memrchr (3) - locate byte in byte string memcmp (3) - compare byte string memcpy (3) - copy byte string memmem (3) - locate substring in byte string memmove (3) - copy byte string memset (3) - write a byte to byte string menu_back, menu_fore, menu_grey, menu_pad, set_menu_back, set_menu_fore, set_menu_grey, set_menu_pad (3) - get and set menu attributes menu_driver (3) - main menu handling function menu_format, set_menu_format (3) - get or set number of rows and columns of items menu_mark, menu_unmark, set_menu_mark, set_menu_unmark (3) - get or set strings that show mark status for a menu menu_opts, menu_opts_off, menu_opts_on, set_menu_opts (3) - get or modify options for a menu menu_pattern, set_menu_pattern (3) - get or set menu pattern menu_sub, menu_win, scale_menu, set_menu_sub, set_menu_win (3) - sub-menu handling menu_userptr, set_menu_userptr (3) - get or set user pointer for a menu menuc (1) - menu compiler menus (3) - menu library mesg (1) - display (do not display) messages from other users mi_vector_hash (3) - fast 32bit hash functions ministat (1) - statistics utility mixer (1) - manipulate mixer settings on a sound card mkdep (1) - construct Makefile dependency list mkdir (1) - make directories mkdir (2) - make a directory file mkfifo (1) - make fifos mkfs.mfs (1) - make a file system mknod (8) - make device special file mknod, mkfifo (2) - make a special file mkproto (1) - create a MINIX 3 prototype file mkstr (1) - create an error message file by massaging C source mktemp (1) - make temporary file name (unique) mktemp, mkstemp, mkdtemp (3) - make unique temporary file or directory name modf (3) - extract signed integral and fractional values from floating-point number monop (6) - Monopoly game mount (1) - mount a file system mount, umount (2) - mount or umount a file system mpool, mpool_open, mpool_filter, mpool_new, mpool_get, mpool_put, mpool_sync, mpool_close (3) - shared memory buffer pool msgc, msg_window, msg_string, msg_clear, msg_standout, msg_standend, msg_display, msg_display_add, msg_printf, msg_prompt, msg_prompt_add, msg_prompt_win, msg_prompt_noecho, msg_row, msg_table_add (1) - simple message list compiler mt (1) - magnetic tape control mtio (4) - magnetic tape commands mtree (5) - format of mtree dir hierarchy files mtree (8) - map a directory hierarchy mv (1) - move files nan, nanf, nanl (3) - return quiet NaN nbperf (1) - compute a perfect hash function netconf (8) - a script to configure the network new_page, set_new_page (3) - form library newfs_ext2fs (8) - construct a new ext2 file system newgrp (1) - change to a new primary group newroot (8) - replace the current root with a new one nextafter, nextafterf, nextafterl, nexttoward (3) - next representable floating-point number nice (1) - execute a utility with an altered scheduling priority nice (3) - set program scheduling priority nl (1) - line numbering filter nl_langinfo (3) - get locale information nlist (3) - retrieve symbol table name list from an executable file nohup (1) - invoke a command immune to hangups nologin (8) - politely refuse a login nonamed (8) - not a name daemon, but acts like one nsdispatch (3) - name-service switch dispatcher routine number (6) - convert Arabic numerals to English od (1) - octal, decimal, hex, ascii dump offtime, timeoff, timegm, timelocal (3) - convert date and time open (2) - open a file for reading or writing, or create a new file opendisk (3) - open a disk partition openpty, login_tty, forkpty (3) - tty utility functions ossinfo (August) - Open Sound System legacy device management utility. parsedate (3) - date parsing function part (8) - partition table editor partition (8) - make a partition table passwd (1) - modify a user's password passwd, group, shadow (5) - user and group databases, shadow passwords paste (1) - merge corresponding or subsequent lines of files patch (1) - apply a diff file to an original pathchk (1) - check pathnames pause (3) - stop until signal pax (1) - read and write file archives and copy directory hierarchies perror, strerror, strerror_r, sys_errlist, sys_nerr (3) - system error messages pidfile (3) - write a daemon pid file pidlock, ttylock, ttyunlock (3) - locks based on files containing PIDs pig (6) - eformatray inputway asway Igpay Atinlay ping (8) - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST packets to network hosts pipe (2) - create descriptor pair for interprocess communication pkg_install.conf (5) - configuration file for package installation tools pkg_summary (5) - summary of binary package repository pkg_view (1) - add and delete instances of depoted packages in views pkgsrc (7) - NetBSD packages collection (framework for third-party software) plain-interface (1) - Description of the plain test program interface playwave (1) - play an audio file in MicroSoft PCM wave format popcount, popcountl, popcountll, popcount32, popcount64 (3) - count number of bits set in a bit string popen, pclose (3) - process I/O pos_form_cursor (3) - form library pos_menu_cursor (3) - position cursor in menu window posix_memalign (3) - aligned memory allocation posix_openpt (3) - open a pseudo-terminal device posix_spawn, posix_spawnp (3) - spawn a process posix_spawn_file_actions_addopen, posix_spawn_file_actions_adddup2, posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose (3) - add open, dup2 or close action to spawn file actions object posix_spawn_file_actions_init, posix_spawn_file_actions_destroy (3) - initiate and destroy spawn file actions object posix_spawnattr_getflags, posix_spawnattr_setflags (3) - get and set the spawn-flags attribute of a spawn attributes object posix_spawnattr_getpgroup, posix_spawnattr_setpgroup (3) - get and set the spawn-pgroup attribute of a spawn attributes object posix_spawnattr_getschedparam, posix_spawnattr_setschedparam (3) - get and set the spawn-schedparam attribute of a spawn attributes object posix_spawnattr_getschedpolicy, posix_spawnattr_setschedpolicy (3) - get and set the spawn-schedpolicy attribute of a spawn attributes object posix_spawnattr_getsigdefault, posix_spawnattr_setsigdefault (3) - get and set the spawn-sigdefault attribute of a spawn attributes object posix_spawnattr_getsigmask, posix_spawnattr_setsigmask (3) - get and set the spawn-sigmask attribute of a spawn attributes object posix_spawnattr_init, posix_spawnattr_destroy (3) - initiate and destroy spawn attributes object post_form, unpost_form (3) - form library post_menu, unpost_menu (3) - post (draw) or unpost a menu postinstall (8) - check and fix installation after system upgrades pow, powf (3) - power functions pr (1) - print files pr_routes (8) - show IP routing. prep (1) - prepare a text file for statistical analysis primes (6) - generate primes printenv (1) - print out the environment printf (1) - formatted output printf, fprintf, dprintf sprintf, snprintf, snprintf_ss, asprintf, vprintf, vfprintf, vsprintf, vdprintf, vsnprintf, vsnprintf_ss, vasprintf (3) - formatted output conversion printroot (8) - print the name of the root device on standard output profile (1) - MINIX system profiling control command prop_array, prop_array_create, prop_array_create_with_capacity, prop_array_copy, prop_array_copy_mutable, prop_array_capacity, prop_array_count, prop_array_ensure_capacity, prop_array_iterator, prop_array_make_immutable, prop_array_mutable, prop_array_get, prop_array_set, prop_array_add, prop_array_remove, prop_array_externalize, prop_array_internalize, prop_array_externalize_to_file, prop_array_internalize_from_file, prop_array_externalize_to_pref, prop_array_internalize_from_pref, prop_array_equals (3) - array property collection object prop_array_copyin_ioctl, prop_array_copyout_ioctl, prop_array_copyin, prop_array_copyout, prop_dictionary_copyin_ioctl, prop_dictionary_copyout_ioctl, prop_dictionary_copyin, prop_dictionary_copyout (9) - Copy property lists to and from kernel space prop_array_send_ioctl, prop_array_recv_ioctl, prop_dictionary_send_ioctl, prop_dictionary_recv_ioctl, prop_dictionary_sendrecv_ioctl (3) - Send and receive propertly lists to and from the kernel using ioctl prop_array_send_syscall, prop_array_recv_syscall, prop_dictionary_send_syscall, prop_dictionary_recv_syscall (3) - send and receive property lists to and from the kernel using syscalls prop_array_util, prop_array_get_bool, prop_array_set_bool, prop_array_get_int8, prop_array_get_uint8, prop_array_set_int8, prop_array_set_uint8, prop_array_get_int16, prop_array_get_uint16, prop_array_set_int16, prop_array_set_uint16, prop_array_get_int32, prop_array_get_uint32, prop_array_set_int32, prop_array_set_uint32, prop_array_get_int64, prop_array_get_uint64, prop_array_set_int64, prop_array_set_uint64, prop_array_add_int8, prop_array_add_uint8, prop_array_add_int16, prop_array_add_uint16, prop_array_add_int32, prop_array_add_uint32, prop_array_add_int64, prop_array_add_uint64, prop_array_get_cstring, prop_array_set_cstring, prop_array_get_cstring_nocopy, prop_array_set_cstring_nocopy, prop_array_add_and_rel (3) - array property collection object utility functions prop_bool, prop_bool_create, prop_bool_copy, prop_bool_true (3) - boolean value property object prop_data, prop_data_create_data, prop_data_create_data_nocopy, prop_data_copy, prop_data_size, prop_data_data, prop_data_data_nocopy, prop_data_equals, prop_data_equals_data (3) - opaque data value property object prop_dictionary, prop_dictionary_create, prop_dictionary_create_with_capacity, prop_dictionary_copy, prop_dictionary_copy_mutable, prop_dictionary_count, prop_dictionary_ensure_capacity, prop_dictionary_iterator, prop_dictionary_all_keys, prop_dictionary_make_immutable, prop_dictionary_mutable, prop_dictionary_get, prop_dictionary_set, prop_dictionary_remove, prop_dictionary_get_keysym, prop_dictionary_set_keysym, prop_dictionary_remove_keysym, prop_dictionary_externalize, prop_dictionary_internalize, prop_dictionary_externalize_to_file, prop_dictionary_internalize_from_file, prop_dictionary_externalize_to_pref, prop_dictionary_internalize_from_pref, prop_dictionary_equals, prop_dictionary_keysym_cstring_nocopy, prop_dictionary_keysym_equals (3) - dictionary property collection object prop_dictionary_util, prop_dictionary_get_dict, prop_dictionary_get_bool, prop_dictionary_set_bool, prop_dictionary_get_int8, prop_dictionary_get_uint8, prop_dictionary_set_int8, prop_dictionary_set_uint8, prop_dictionary_get_int16, prop_dictionary_get_uint16, prop_dictionary_set_int16, prop_dictionary_set_uint16, prop_dictionary_get_int32, prop_dictionary_get_uint32, prop_dictionary_set_int32, prop_dictionary_set_uint32, prop_dictionary_get_int64, prop_dictionary_get_uint64, prop_dictionary_set_int64, prop_dictionary_set_uint64, prop_dictionary_get_cstring, prop_dictionary_set_cstring, prop_dictionary_get_cstring_nocopy, prop_dictionary_set_cstring_nocopy, prop_dictionary_set_and_rel (3) - dictionary property collection object utility functions prop_ingest_context_alloc, prop_ingest_context_free, prop_ingest_context_error, prop_ingest_context_type, prop_ingest_context_key, prop_ingest_context_private, prop_dictionary_ingest (3) - Ingest a dictionary into an arbitrary binary format prop_number, prop_number_create_integer, prop_number_create_unsigned_integer, prop_number_copy, prop_number_size, prop_number_unsigned, prop_number_integer_value, prop_number_unsigned_integer_value, prop_number_equals, prop_number_equals_integer, prop_number_equals_unsigned_integer (3) - numeric value property object prop_object, prop_object_retain, prop_object_release, prop_object_type, prop_object_equals, prop_object_iterator_next, prop_object_iterator_reset, prop_object_iterator_release (3) - general property container object functions prop_string, prop_string_create, prop_string_create_cstring, prop_string_create_cstring_nocopy, prop_string_copy, prop_string_copy_mutable, prop_string_size, prop_string_mutable, prop_string_cstring, prop_string_cstring_nocopy, prop_string_append, prop_string_append_cstring, prop_string_equals, prop_string_equals_cstring (3) - string value property object proplib (3) - property container object library ps (1) - process status psignal, psiginfo, sys_siglist, sys_signame (3) - system signal messages pthread_atfork (3) - register handlers to be called when process forks ptrace (2) - process trace ptsname (3) - get the pathname of the slave pseudo-terminal device puffs (3) - Pass-to-Userspace Framework File System development interface puffs_cc (3) - puffs continuation routines puffs_cred (3) - puffs credential and access control routines puffs_flush (3) - puffs kernel cache flushing and invalidation routines puffs_framebuf (3) - buffering and event handling for networked file systems puffs_node (3) - puffs node routines puffs_ops (3) - puffs callback operations puffs_path (3) - puffs pathbuilding routines pw_getconf, pw_getpwconf (3) - password encryption configuration access function pw_init, pw_edit, pw_prompt, pw_copy, pw_copyx, pw_scan, pw_error (3) - utility functions for interactive passwd file updates pw_lock, pw_mkdb, pw_abort, pw_setprefix, pw_getprefix (3) - passwd file update functions pwcache, user_from_uid, group_from_gid (3) - cache password and group entries pwd (1) - return working directory name pwd_mkdb (8) - generate the password databases pwdauth (8) - password authentication program pwhash (1) - hashes passwords from the command line or standard input qabs (3) - return the absolute value of a quad integer qdiv (3) - return quotient and remainder from division qsort, heapsort, mergesort (3) - sort functions quick_exit (3) - exits a program quickly, running minimal cleanup radixsort, sradixsort (3) - radix sort raise (3) - send a signal to the current thread raise_default_signal (3) - raise the default signal handler rand, srand, rand_r (3) - bad random number generator random (6) - random lines from a file or random numbers random, srandom, initstate, setstate (3) - better random number generator; routines for changing generators randomid, randomid_new, randomid_delete, (3) - provide pseudo-random data stream without repetitions rarpd (8) - reverse address resolution protocol daemon rcmd, orcmd, rcmd_af, orcmd_af, rresvport, rresvport_af, iruserok, ruserok, iruserok_sa (3) - routines for returning a stream to a remote command rcp (1) - remote file copy rdate (8) - set the system's date from a remote host re_format (7) - POSIX 1003.2 regular expressions read, pread (2) - read input readclock (8) - read or set a real time clock readlink (2) - read the contents of a symlink realpath (3) - returns the canonicalized absolute pathname reboot (2) - reboot system or halt processor reboot, poweroff, halt (8) - restarting, powering down and stopping the system recno (3) - record number database access method recv (2) - receive a message through a socket recvfrom (2) - receive a message through a socket recvmsg (2) - receive a message through a socket recwave (1) - record an audio file in MicroSoft PCM wave format refuse (3) - Re-implementation of a file system in userspace system regex, regcomp, regexec, regerror, regfree (3) - regular-expression library remainder, remainderf, remquo, remquof (3) - remainder functions remove (3) - remove directory entry remsync (1) - remotely synchronize file trees rename (2) - change the name of a file renice (8) - alter priority of running processes repartition (8) - load a partition table report (1) - Generates a plain-text report with the results of a test action report-html (1) - Generates an HTML report with the results of a test action res_ninit, res_ourserver_p, fp_resstat, res_hostalias, res_pquery, res_nquery, res_nsearch, res_nquerydomain, res_nmkquery, res_nsend, res_nupdate, res_nmkupdate, res_nclose, res_nsendsigned, res_findzonecut, res_getservers, res_setservers, res_ndestroy, dn_comp, dn_expand, res_init, res_isourserver, fp_nquery, p_query, hostalias, res_query, res_search, res_querydomain, res_mkquery, res_send, res_update, res_close, (3) - resolver routines resolv.conf (5) - Domain Name System resolver configuration resolver (5) - resolver configuration file rev (1) - reverse order of characters of lines in a file rget, rput (1) - network pipe rhosts, hosts.equiv (5) - trusted remote users or hosts rindex (3) - locate character in string rint, rintf (3) - round to integral value in floating-point format rlogin (1) - remote login rm (1) - remove directory entries rmdir (1) - remove directories rmdir (2) - remove a directory file rmtops (3) - access tape drives on remote machines roff (7) - roff language reference for mandoc round, roundf, roundl (3) - round to nearest integral value rsh (1) - remote shell rshd (8) - remote shell server rz (1) - receive a file using the zmodem protocol scalbn, scalbnf, scalbnl (3) - exponent using FLT_RADIX scandir, alphasort (3) - scan a directory scanf, fscanf, sscanf, vscanf, vsscanf, vfscanf (3) - input format conversion screendump (8) - write current console screen to standard output sdiff (1) - side-by-side diff secure_path (3) - determine if a file appear to be ``secure'' sed (1) - stream editor select, FD_CLR, FD_ISSET, FD_SET, FD_ZERO (2) - synchronous I/O multiplexing send (2) - send a message through a socket sendmsg (2) - send a message through a socket sendto (2) - send a message through a socket seq (1) - print sequences of numbers serial-ip (8) - Serial IP (SLIP or PPP) setup serv.access (5) - Internet service access list service (8) - Manage an operating system service. setbuf, setbuffer, setlinebuf, setvbuf (3) - stream buffering operations setlocale, localeconv (3) - natural language formatting for C setproctitle (3) - set process title setruid, setrgid (3) - set user and group ID setsid, getpgrp (2) - create process group, get process group id setsockopt (2) - set the value of a socket option. setuid, seteuid, setgid, setegid (2) - set (effective) user or group ID's setup (8) - Install MINIX 3 on a hard disk setupterm, set_curterm, del_curterm, termname, longname, tigetflag, tigetnum, tigetstr, tparm, tputs, putp (3) - terminal independent operation routines sh (1) - command interpreter (shell) shar (1) - create a shell archive of files shlock (1) - create or verify a lock file for shell scripts shquote, shquotev (3) - quote argument strings for use with the shell shuffle (1) - print a random permutation of the command line arguments shutdown (2) - shuts down a socket for reading, writing, or both shutdown (8) - graciously close the system down sigaction, signal (2) - manage signal state and handlers sigblock (3) - block signals sigemptyset, sigfillset, sigaddset, sigdelset, sigismember (3) - manipulate signal sets sighold (3) - manipulate current signal mask sigignore (3) - manipulate signal dispositions siginterrupt (3) - allow signals to interrupt system calls signal (3) - simplified software signal facilities signbit (3) - test sign sigpause (3) - atomically release blocked signals and wait for interrupt sigpending (2) - report pending signals sigprocmask (2) - manipulate the signal mask sigrelse (3) - manipulate current signal mask sigset (3) - manipulate signal dispositions sigsetjmp, siglongjmp, setjmp, longjmp, _setjmp, _longjmp, longjmperror (3) - non-local jumps sigsetmask (3) - set current signal mask sigsuspend (2) - suspend until signalled sigvec (3) - software signal facilities sin, sinf (3) - sine function sinh, sinhf (3) - hyperbolic sine function sleep (1) - suspend execution for an interval of time sleep (3) - suspend process execution for interval of seconds slip (8) - Serial Line IP snprintb (3) - bitmask output conversion sockaddr_snprintf (3) - formatting function for socket address structures sockatmark (3) - determine whether a socket is at the out-of-band mark socket (2) - creates a socket. socketpair (2) - creates a pair of connected sockets. soelim (1) - eliminate .so's from nroff input sort (1) - sort or merge text files spell (1) - print all words in a file not present in the dictionary split (1) - split a file into pieces sqlite3 (1) - A command line interface for SQLite version 3 srccrc (8) - compute CRC checksums of the entire source tree ssp (3) - bounds checked libc functions stat, readlink (1) - display file status statvfs (5) - file system statistics statvfs, statvfs1, fstatvfs, fstatvfs1 (2) - get file system statistics stdio (3) - standard input/output library functions stpcpy, stpncpy, strcat, strlcat, strncat, strchr, strrchr, strcmp, strncmp, strcasecmp, strncasecmp, strcoll, strcpy, strlcpy, strncpy, strerror, strerror_r, strlen, strnlen, strpbrk, strsep, stresep, strspn, strcspn, strdup, strndup, strstr, strcasestr, strtok, strtok_r, strxfrm (3) - string specific functions stpcpy, stpncpy, strcpy, strncpy (3) - copy strings strcasecmp, strncasecmp (3) - compare strings, ignoring case strcat, strncat (3) - concatenate strings strchr (3) - locate character in string strcmp, strncmp (3) - compare strings strcoll (3) - compare strings according to current collation strcspn (3) - span the complement of a string strdup, strndup (3) - save a copy of a string strfile, unstr (8) - create a random access file for storing strings strfmon (3) - convert monetary value to string strftime, strftime_z (3) - format date and time string_to_flags, flags_to_string (3) - Stat flags parsing and printing functions stringlist, sl_init, sl_add, sl_free, sl_find, sl_delete (3) - stringlist manipulation functions strlcpy, strlcat (3) - size-bounded string copying and concatenation strlen, strnlen (3) - find length of string strmode (3) - convert inode status information into a symbolic string strpbrk (3) - locate multiple characters in string strpct, strspct (3) - decimal percent formatters strptime (3) - converts a character string to a time value strrchr (3) - locate character in string strsep, stresep (3) - separate strings strsignal (3) - get signal description string strspn (3) - span a string strstr, strcasestr (3) - locate a substring in a string strsuftoll, strsuftollx (3) - convert a string to a long long, with suffix parsing strtod, strtof, strtold (3) - convert ASCII string to double, float, or long double strtok, strtok_r (3) - string tokens strtol, strtoll, strtoimax, strtoq (3) - convert string value to a long, long long, intmax_t or quad_t integer strtoul, strtoull, strtoumax, strtouq (3) - convert a string to an unsigned long, unsigned long long, uintmax_t or uquad_t integer strxfrm (3) - transform a string under locale stty (1) - set options for a terminal device interface su (1) - substitute user identity svc, ci, co, svclog (1) - shell version control system svrctl (1) - send servers control messages svrctl (2) - special server control functions swab (3) - swap adjacent bytes symlink (2) - make a symbolic link to a file sync (8) - force completion of pending disk writes (flush cache) sync, fsync (2) - update dirty buffers and super-block synctree (1) - synchronize directory trees. sysconf (3) - get configurable system variables sysctl, sysctlbyname, sysctlgetmibinfo, sysctlnametomib (3) - get or set system information sysenv (1) - request system boot parameter syslog, syslog_r, vsyslog, vsyslog_r, syslogp, syslogp_r, vsyslogp, vsyslogp_r, openlog, openlog_r, closelog, closelog_r, setlogmask, setlogmask_r (3) - control system log syslog.conf (5) - syslogd(8) configuration file syslogd (8) - system logging daemon. system (3) - pass a command to the shell system.conf (5) - operating system service configuration sz (1) - send a file using the zmodem protocol tail (1) - display the last part of a file tan, tanf (3) - tangent function tanh, tanhf (3) - hyperbolic tangent function tar (1) - tape archiver tar (5) - format of tape archive files tbl (7) - tbl language reference for mandoc tcgetpgrp (3) - get foreground process group ID tcgetsid (3) - get session ID associated with a controlling terminal tcpd, tcpdp (8) - waits for a TCP connection request and starts a server tcsendbreak, tcdrain, tcflush, tcflow (3) - line control functions tcsetpgrp (3) - set foreground process group ID tee (1) - pipe fitting telnet (1) - user interface to the TELNET protocol template, blueprint (1) - a blueprint for making manual pages tempnam, tmpfile, tmpnam (3) - temporary file routines term (1) - turn PC into a dumb terminal [IBM] termcap (1) - print the current termcap entry termcap (5) - terminal capability data base terminfo (5) - terminal capability definition test (1) - Runs tests test, [ (1) - condition evaluation utility test-filters (7) - Syntax of the command-line test filters tetris (6) - the game of tetris texi2dvi (1) - print Texinfo documents texindex (1) - sort Texinfo index files texinfo (5) - software documentation system tget (1) - get termcap values tgetent, tgetnum, tgetflag, tgetstr, tgoto, tputs (3) - terminal independent operation routines tic (1) - terminfo compiler time (1) - report how long a command takes time (3) - get time of day time, stime (2) - get/set date and time time2posix, time2posix_z, posix2time, posix2time_z, (3) - convert seconds since the Epoch times (3) - process times timezone (3) - return the timezone abbreviation toascii (3) - convert a byte to 7-bit ASCII tolower (3) - upper case to lower case letter conversion touch (1) - change file access and modification times toupper (3) - lower case to upper case letter conversion towctrans (3) - convert a wide character with a specified map towlower (3) - wide character case letter conversion utilities tput, clear (1) - terminal capability interface tr (1) - translate characters traceroute (8) - print the route packets take to network host true (1) - return true value trunc, truncf, truncl (3) - nearest integral value with magnitude less than or equal to |x| truncate (1) - truncate or extend the length of files truncate, ftruncate (2) - truncate a file to a specified length (may extend) tsearch, tfind, tdelete, twalk (3) - manipulate binary search trees tsort (1) - topological sort of a directed graph tty (1) - return user's terminal name tty, termios (4) - terminals ttyaction (3) - ttyaction utility function ttymsg (3) - ttymsg utility function ttyname, ttyname_r, isatty, ttyslot (3) - get name of associated terminal (tty) from file descriptor ttys (5) - terminal initiation information ttytab (5) - table of login terminals tzfile (5) - time zone information tzset (3) - initialize time conversion information ualarm (3) - schedule signal after specified time uds (4) - unics domain sockets device ul (1) - do underlining ulimit (3) - get and set process limits umask (2) - set file creation mode mask umount (1) - unmount a mounted file system uname (1) - Print operating system name uname (2) - get system info uname (3) - get system identification ungetc (3) - un-get character from input stream ungetwc (3) - un-get wide character from input stream unifdef, unifdefall (1) - remove preprocessor conditionals from code uniq (1) - report or filter out repeated lines in a file units (1) - conversion program unix (8) - Unix Domain Sockets (PF_UNIX) / Local Sockets (PF_LOCAL) unlink (2) - remove directory entry unlink (8) - call the unlink function unlockpt (3) - unlock the slave pseudo-terminal device unvis (1) - revert a visual representation of data back to original form unvis, strunvis (3) - decode a visual representation of characters unzip (1) - extract files from a ZIP archive update (8) - periodically write the buffer cache to disk uptime (1) - show how long system has been running usage (8) - installing and using MINIX user (8) - manage user login information on the system useradd (8) - add a user to the system userdel (8) - remove a user from the system userinfo (8) - displays user information usermgmt.conf (5) - user management tools configuration file usermod (8) - modify user login information users (1) - list current users usleep (3) - suspend execution for interval of microseconds util, libutil (3) - system utilities library utime (2) - set file times utime (3) - set file times utmp, wtmp (5) - logged in users, login and logout history uuencode (5) - format of an encoded uuencode file uuencode, uudecode (1) - encode/decode a binary file uuid_compare, uuid_create, uuid_create_nil, uuid_equal, uuid_from_string, uuid_hash, uuid_is_nil, uuid_to_string, uuid_enc_le, uuid_dec_le, uuid_enc_be, uuid_dec_be (3) - Universally Unique Identifier routines uuidgen (1) - generate universally unique identifiers valloc (3) - aligned memory allocation function vbfs (8) - VirtualBox Shared Folder File System server vipw (8) - edit the password file virecover (8) - report recovered vi edit sessions vis (1) - display non-printable characters in a visual format vis, nvis, strvis, strnvis, strvisx, strnvisx, strenvisx, svis, snvis, strsvis, strsnvis, strsvisx, strsnvisx, strsenvisx (3) - visually encode characters vndconfig (8) - configure vnode disks vol (1) - split input on or combine output from several volumes w (1) - who present users are and what they are doing wait, waitpid (2) - wait for process to terminate wall (1) - write a message to users wargames (6) - shall we play a game? wc (1) - word, line, and byte count wcrtomb (3) - converts a wide character to a multibyte character (restartable) wcscasecmp, wcsncasecmp (3) - compare wide-character strings, ignoring case wcscoll (3) - compare wide strings according to current collation wcsdup (3) - save a copy of a wide string wcsftime (3) - convert date and time to a wide-character string wcsrtombs (3) - converts a wide-character string to a multibyte character string (restartable) wcstof, wcstod, wcstold (3) - convert string to float, double, or long double wcstok (3) - split wide-character string into tokens wcstol, wcstoul, wcstoll, wcstoull, wcstoimax, wcstoumax (3) - convert a wide-character string value to a long, unsigned long, long long, unsigned long long, intmax_t or uintmax_t integer wcstombs (3) - converts a wide-character string to a multibyte character string wcswidth (3) - number of column positions in wide-character string wcsxfrm (3) - transform a wide string under locale wctob (3) - convert a wide character to a single byte character wctomb (3) - converts a wide character to a multibyte character wctrans (3) - get character mapping identifier by name wctype (3) - get character class identifier by name wcwidth (3) - number of column positions of a wide-character code what (1) - search files for SCCS identifiers whatis (1) - describe what a command is whereis (1) - locate programs which (1) - locate a program file in the users $PATH environment variable who (1) - display who is logged in whoami (1) - display effective user id whois (1) - Internet domain name and network number directory service wmemchr, wmemcmp, wmemcpy, wmemmove, wmemset, wcscat, wcschr, wcscmp, wcscpy, wcscspn, wcslcat, wcslcpy, wcslen, wcsncat, wcsncmp, wcsncpy, wcspbrk, wcsrchr, wcsspn, wcsstr wcswcs (3) - wide-character string manipulation operations wordexp (3) - perform shell-style word expansions worldstone (1) - shell script to consistently execute benchmarks wprintf, fwprintf, swprintf, vwprintf, vfwprintf, vswprintf (3) - formatted wide character output conversion write (1) - send a message to another user write (2) - write output wscanf, fwscanf, swscanf, vwscanf, vswscanf, vfwscanf (3) - wide character input format conversion xargs (1) - construct argument list(s) and execute utility xstr (1) - extract strings from C programs to implement shared strings xz, unxz, xzcat, lzma, unlzma, lzcat (1) - Compress or expand .xz and .lzma files yacc (1) - an LALR(1) parser generator yap, more (1) - yet another pager yes (1) - be repetitively affirmative zcmp, zdiff (1) - compare compressed files zdump (8) - time zone dumper zforce (1) - force gzip files to have a .gz suffix zic (8) - time zone compiler zlib (3) - general purpose compression library zmore, zless (1) - view compressed files znew (1) - convert compressed files to gzipped files
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